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In this book, Dr Jibgar Joshi gives an account of some of the planning approaches that he has applied during the course of his long career. He has presented the concept of planning as a tool for making decisions in a wide spectrum of situations in a lucid and concise manner. The book is a comprehensive work on planning at different levels in Nepal. It provides a review of national planning since its inception. It deals with planning at sub-national levels; and stresses on the need for their integration with national planning. It explains the methods of project analysis in simple terms and gives details on how to make a plan. It also deals with environment and land use. It shows how infrastructure agencies should develop their business plans. One of its chapter deals with institutions. The book concludes with a discourse on the future of planning where he has shown concern for the need of making planning useful and relevant. For this, he has suggested measures to make planning strategic in order to enhance the social good.

The global economy defines the way we manage our cities. At the same time, the way we manage our cities has immense impact on the global environment, not to speak of climate change. This book is an attempt to show how cities and environment should be managed for sustainable development. It works on their integration. It is a comprehensive work on environment and cities. It explores the changing perspective on environment.It unfolds two dominant issues – environment and urban planning which are relevant to the present time’s scenario of urbanizing Nepal. Being a subject of global importance, coining words and using jargon have become a fashion among experts while analyzing the need of environmental protection for sustainable development, this book provides lots of information to familiarize such uses to the readers.

Human activities take place mostly in cities; and affect the environment. The book views environment as an integral part of human life and happiness. It deals with different aspects of urban environmental management; and shows how urban environment can be improved with a view to meeting the goals of sustainable development. One of its chapter deals with climate change and cities. It provides a framework for environmental governance at different levels. It shows ways and means of building capacity in developing countries. It deals with strategies to manage environment as well as cities, and try to link them together for sustainable development. It tries to give a framework for an integrated action on environment and cities.

Kathmandu: tante città, una sola Valle
Articoli di questo autore (2) 242
Jibgar Joshi
Presidente della Società Pianificatori urbani e regionali del Nepal. Insegna alla Tribhuvan University e alla School of Environmental Management

La valle di Kathmandu è ricca in termini di patrimonio, grazie ai famosi centri urbani, alle architetture e ai molti insediamenti storici di immenso valore culturale. Dal punto di vista amministrativo, è formata dal distretto di Kathmandu (escluso un Comitato di sviluppo locale), Bhaktapur e dalla maggior parte del distretto di Lalitpur.
Al suo interno troviamo una metropoli (Kathmandu) e una sub-metropoli (Lalitpur). Oltre a Bhaktapur, Madhyapur e Kirtipur, ci sono altri tre comuni [1]. All’interno dei comuni troviamo un totale di 86 Comitati di sviluppo locale.
Dal punto di vista turistico, si tratta della regione più visitata del Nepal. Ci sono infatti ben sette importanti siti nella Valle denominati Patrimonio dell’Umanità: le tre piazze Durbar, Changu Narayan, Swoyambhu, Boudhanath, e Pashupatinath. Inoltre ci sono molti stupas, chaityas, e bahal con un valore da preservare. Infine sono anche rinomati l’urbanistica e gli stili di vita tradizionali.
Ma l’ambiente nella Valle si sta rapidamente deteriorando a causa dell’altrettanto rapido fenomeno di urbanizzazione: si assiste ad un processo di inversione termica, i venti non riescono a spazzare via l’aria inquinata e il sistema del fiume si degrada a causa dello scarico dei rifiuti urbani. Data la sensibilità ecologica della Valle, la maggior parte del territorio non è adatto allo sviluppo urbano. Con la perdita di terreni coltivabili e vegetazione, il problema dell’inquinamento dell’aria è cresciuto e la gestione dei rifiuti solidi è diventata più problematica; le risorse idriche sono divenute inadeguate; si è ridotta l’accessibilità ad aria fresca, acqua e spazi aperti.
Il bisogno di sensibilità ecologica è cresciuto ancora di più a seguito della riduzione delle risorse naturali: in tale processo, i bisogni di una popolazione in crescita non possono essere soddisfatti. Si è inoltre assistito ad un incremento della diseguaglianza tra ricchi e poveri, che è andato di pari passo con una seria compromissione del fragile ecosistema della Valle. Tuttavia è possibile affermare che questa sia ancora un ambiente vivibile e inclusivo, capace fino ad oggi di preservare la sua identità e il suo carattere.
Una società tradizionalmente coesa

Una caratteristica distintiva delle antiche conurbazioni in Nepal è proprio la loro coesione sociale. In passato non c’era polarizzazione: ricchi e poveri erano integrati nel sistema sociale. La loro inclusione era dovuta al fatto di essere accomunati dallo stile di vita prevalente. Le persone si auto-organizzavano per creare una comunità, un’unità di vicinato nella quale condividere gioie e avversità, soddisfare i propri bisogni, partecipando alle attività comuni e servendo la comunità in base ai propri interessi e alle proprie capacità.
Il patrimonio urbano è rimasto più o meno intatto, ed è parte integrante della cultura degli abitanti: non si tratta di un museo. I siti storici non sono stati indeboliti dalle minacce emergenti, e sono sopravvissuti nonostante gli sconvolgimenti avvenuti in diverse epoche. Tale sopravvivenza può essere spiegata se si pensa alla ricchezza della cultura, al dinamismo e all’alta efficienza della forma urbana, alla sostenibilità della pianificazione degli insediamenti tramite un uso giudizioso del territorio e degli spazi aperti, e infine se si pensa all’importanza sociale, economica e culturale che ancora tali siti incarnano per la società nepalese contemporanea. Le cittadine medioevali sono state costruite come insediamenti compatti e sono altamente efficienti in termini di trasporti e uso del suolo: così permettono di soddisfare i bisogni economici, sociali, religiosi e culturali dei loro residenti.
Elementi culturali e religiosi hanno dominato l’economia della Valle. A fronte di un investimento pubblico scarso, sono state proprio l’unicità delle caratteristiche culturali e l’attrattività naturale a portare ad una crescita dell’economia urbana. È stato dunque il patrimonio di per sé che ha funzionato come un polo magnetico, attraendo attività e investimenti. Tuttavia, proprio tale potere di attrazione gli ha conferito una centralità che lo ha reso al tempo stesso vulnerabile e ha infine portato alla sua mercificazione. L’unicità tipologica del patrimonio urbano ha funzionato come parte integrante dell’economia urbana, ed è tutt’oggi di immenso valore anche se le persone non lo percepiscono ne lo apprezzano.
La cultura è una delle risorse maggiori per paesi e città in Nepal. E ciò è vero sia negli affollati borghi storici che nei villaggi isolati dove le persone vivono in stretta armonia con la natura. Nella Valle si possono trovare numerosi siti di grande valore archeologico, storico religioso. I principali monumenti sono:
– Pagode, templi, santuari e stupa;
– Antichi palazzi, corti interne e statue;
– Borghi storici con edifici residenziali, piazze, viali, fontane in pietra, cortili, bahal e bahis;
– Opere d’arte e dipinti.

Il suo fascino culturale può essere trovato anche nella forma di diversi festival che si tengono durante il corso dell’anno: il patrimonio culturale fa così parte della vita quotidiana delle persone. La vita è basata sulle credenze religiose e sul rispetto delle proprie tradizioni. Gli abitanti autoctoni hanno portato avanti la cultura e ne hanno accompagnato l’integrazione nel mutevole processo di sviluppo. Sono la stessa vita quotidiana delle persone e il lavoro di fattori, artigiani, carpentieri, pittori e scultori che rappresentano la “cultura viva” degli abitanti rinforzata da strutture e impostazioni, da festival, costumi, danze e musiche, dalla diversità etnica, dalla filosofia della religione e dalla sua pratica, da miti e leggende.
Riti speciali e celebrazioni segnano gli eventi importanti dell’esistenza di ognuno, dalla nascita alla morte, presupponendo una simbiosi di corpo e anima con il divino. I festival sono espressioni della vita e ne riflettono gioie e dolori, paure e sogni; vengono praticati nel corso dell’anno e sono interrelati tra loro. Si tratta di cerimonie colorate, misteriose e divertenti al tempo stesso, che hanno origine nella religione, ma seguono anche credenze leggendarie, superstizioni e tradizioni contadine come le stagioni del raccolto delle messi. Alcune festività sono osservate a livello nazionale, mentre altre sono specifiche di Kathmandu o di certe particolari comunità, paesi o villaggi.
L’erosione in corso

Le città stanno diventando meno inclusive con il passare del tempo a causa del fallimento della loro trasformazione in linea con le tendenze moderne. Si assiste, in effetti ad un’erosione dei valori culturali e religiosi. Lo sviluppo urbano ha creato molto benessere nella Valle, tant’è che molti abitanti si sono arricchiti grazie al possesso di terreni, ma solo pochissime risorse sono state investite per migliorare i servizi necessari per rendere lo sviluppo più sostenibile e di conseguenza le aree urbane sono rimaste povere. Ciò significa che nel prossimo futuro il progresso economico verrà probabilmente colpito dalla mancanza di servizi e questo avrà delle conseguenze a sua volta sulla capacità di carico della Valle e sulla produttività che verosimilmente sarà in declino.
La vita urbana è stata minacciata in molti modi dal passaggio verso stili di vita non sostenibili come nel caso della costruzione di edilizia intensiva in luoghi dove già si riscontra una carenza drammatica di servizi e dove il sistema dei trasporti è caotico. Le città antiche sono state esposte ad economie esterne con la conseguenza che non solo sono diventati luoghi meno inclusivi ma anche che la loro economia interna ne è risultata indebolita. I rifiuti solidi non sono raccolti regolarmente.
Il sistema valoriale del passato viene così sostituito da uno nuovo: vi è una preferenza per il benessere anche se la soddisfazione che ne deriva è in declino. Nelle comunità più povere, la maggior parte delle necessità sono soddisfatte grazie allo sforzo della comunità e al mutuo-aiuto. Nonostante il mercato abbia provato a sostituire tale sistema, i poveri normalmente non hanno un accesso adeguato alla maggior parte delle cose di cui avrebbero bisogno per la loro sopravvivenza e il loro progresso. In altre parole la povertà contribuisce a rendere gli insediamenti più coesi al loro interno, poiché accresce l’interdipendenza tra i loro membri. La dipendenza dalle comunità locali decresce al crescere del guadagno della famiglia, ma questo passaggio non sembra essere risolutivo poiché in tale transizione la famiglia finisce per sacrificare la maggior parte delle cose da cui traeva effettivamente beneficio. Se ne può dunque dedurre che per una società in transizione non è necessariamente una cosa positiva passare a stili di vita moderni e più convenzionali. Tanto più che il fallimento nel mantenere vive le reti di mutuo aiuto porta necessariamente alla perdita di inclusione sociale nella società.
L’adeguamento a stili di vita moderni implicano anche ulteriori costi, come nel caso principe dei costi per la gestione dei rifiuti che derivano dall’adozione di tecniche moderne. Il fallimento nella gestione del processo di adattamento e quindi di tali costi ha portato a stili di vita insostenibili. Sia il settore pubblico che quello privato non hanno aiutato a preparare le persone al cambiamento: anziché accrescere la sensibilità pubblica sugli approcci sostenibili, hanno infatti promosso stili poco sostenibili per raggiungere obiettivi a breve termine di guadagni finanziari.
Di seguito si elencano alcuni dei problemi che hanno caratterizzato la Valle a seguito del processo di rapida urbanizzazione:
– Insediamenti in aree sensibili, come ad esempio piane di esondazione;
– Perdita prematura di terreni agricoli;
– Formazione di baraccopoli con condizioni sanitarie e di salute pubblica inadeguate;
– Problemi di fornitura e inquinamento dell’acqua;
– Insufficienza energetica, uso limitato di energie alternative e altissimi prezzi per l’energia;
– Mancato coordinamento tra trasporti e usi del suolo, con conseguenze in termini di grave congestione del traffico e inquinamento;
– Problemi di gestione dei rifiuti solidi e discariche nel letto del fiume.

Nonostante ci sia stata una crescita sostanziale negli investimenti, sono cresciuti anche i problemi dovuti ad una grave carenza di servizi urbani. Al crescere dei costi dei servizi, la maggior parte delle persone non ha potuto permettersi di pagarli, ed è così rimasta priva anche dei servizi più essenziali. Proprio per questo, dovrebbe essere categorizzata come povera in riferimento alle possibilità di accesso ai servizi igienici, all’acqua e agli altri servizi di base. L’accessibilità ai servizi sociali non è aumentata all’aumentare degli investimenti, e le persone non riescono ad ottenere ciò che vogliono anche se sono disposte a pagare. Il fallimento della gestione dei servizi urbani basilari nelle aree urbane dense ha portato a quello che può essere chiamata come povertà collettiva. Strade sporche, fiumi inquinati, accumulo di rifiuti negli spazi pubblici e congestione del traffico con conseguente inquinamento dell’aria e acustico, sono tutti problemi che riguardano l’intera popolazione, tuttavia la povertà nelle località meno abbienti è allarmante e i poveri sono la categoria più colpita dal degrado ambientale.
I siti storici protetti e gli spazi aperti ben mantenuti e fruibili sono virtualmente gli unici spazi urbani dove persone di diversa estrazione sociale hanno la medesima possibilità di accesso. Così i parchi e gli spazi pubblici in generale diventano strumentali per migliorare la qualità di aria e acqua, per preservare i fiumi e la vegetazione nei contesti urbani. Gli spazi pubblici sono altresì essenziali perché forniscono servizi per la comunità e spazi di ritrovo. Spazi e luoghi sono dunque necessari per creare e diffondere rituali sociali e culturali carichi di significato per tutti gli abitanti. Eventi pubblici come mercati su strada e rappresentazioni teatrali contribuiscono a rendere più intensa la vita di quartiere. Le città dovrebbero fornire spazi per le organizzazioni spontanee e di comunità.
La vivibilità delle città storiche

Le città storiche dovrebbero essere considerate come degli ecosistemi. Esse infatti hanno un ciclo di vita abbastanza lungo da lasciare dei segni indelebili sulla terra. Sono dunque le popolazioni locali con le loro aspirazioni e le loro energie che possono allungare la vita dei loro ecosistemi tramite la cultura. L’esperienza nepalese nella conservazione e valorizzazione delle città storiche come Bhaktapur mostra come sia necessario integrare cultura e sviluppo tramite la pianificazione. Invece di controllare nuove espansioni della città, queste dovrebbero essere rese compatibili con i siti protetti per una trasformazione culturale. In tale processo, il carattere e l’identità associati con il patrimonio storico dovrebbero essere mantenuti. Inoltre, bisognerebbe fornire alle persone gli strumenti tecnologici che gli permettano di usufruire pienamente dei siti storici. Bisogna capire i cambiamenti sociali prima di realizzare cambiamenti fisici. La maggior parte dei cambiamenti moderni potrebbero non portare beneficio alle persone: per distinguere quali cambiamenti moderni sono compatibili con l’esistente, oppure quali elementi possono essere ben integrati, è necessario portare avanti una ricerca sullo sviluppo sostenibile. Quello che sembra mancare sono le conoscenze e le tecniche di conservazione. Il degrado culturale non è sopraggiunto a causa dell’ignoranza, dell’analfabetismo e neppure della povertà, ma a causa dell’avvento del benessere e della crescita delle possibilità economiche portate dalla mercificazione stessa della cultura.
L’obiettivo è dunque quello di stimolare e rigenerare una comunità, e di creare luoghi piacevoli che diano valore alle città. Si è convinti infatti che tali luoghi possano dare agli abitanti le opportunità e le possibilità per prosperare e raggiungere il massimo potenziale. Sembra più facile fornire i servizi necessari in un’area densa e compatta, come d’altra parte era il tessuto delle cittadine medioevali. Al contrario, lo sprawl non solo ha distrutto preziosi terreni agricoli, ma ha anche reso costosa e inadeguata la fornitura di servizi. Il prezzo dei trasporti pubblici non è più accessibile a troppe persone, tant’è che i meno abbienti sono costretti a camminare per ore per raggiungere i luoghi di lavoro e per avere accesso ai servizi essenziali.
La vivibilità dipende dall’abilità di creare un ambiente che evochi l’armonia tra la cultura, l’ambiente costruito e la natura. Ogni cultura vorrebbe preservare la sua identità: se non riusciamo a capire questo concetto, i siti storici diventeranno delle aree problematiche che hanno perduto il loro carattere. Con la crescita della popolazione e i cambiamenti nel sistema valoriale e nelle aspirazioni, anche gli ecosistemi cambiano, tuttavia c’è sempre stata una resistenza al cambiamento, e la sostenibilità dei nuovi cambiamenti dipende dalla loro compatibilità con la cultura prevalente.

[1] Si tratta dei comuni, recentemente designati, di Champapur, Shankharapur e Karyabinayak
Data di pubblicazione: 15 agosto 2012
Home > Archivio > 242

Kathmandu
Un programma inclusivo
La Valle in cifre

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Un programma inclusivo
Jibgar Joshi

Il Nepal sta attraversando una lunga fase di transizione, con la conseguenza che vi è stata un’ulteriore concentrazione di attività nella Valle. Lo sviluppo qui ha portato sia ad un’accumulazione di benessere, ma anche ad una stagnazione nelle aree più periferiche. La maggior parte delle attività dei partiti politici avviene qui e con ciò è cresciuta la spesa dello stato, senza che le condizioni di infrastrutture e servizi siano migliorate ad intercettare la domanda crescente. Ciò ha condotto ad una situazione che può essere considerata come un “fallimento della città”. Il fallimento nell’innescare cambiamenti a lungo termine ha spinto il governo ad impegnarsi in azioni populiste e ad alta visibilità, con l’unica finalità di rendere nota la propria presenza, senza però intraprendere iniziative significative, di lungo respiro per rispondere alla crisi emergente. In termini di competitività su scala globale, la valle non è più considerata un buon posto per alcun tipo di investimento con un conseguente brusco declino del mercato immobiliare. L’incapacità di soddisfare la crescente domanda di infrastrutture e servizi, ha spinto verso piccoli progetti di tipo incrementale finalizzati ad attenuare se non risolvere la crisi. Tuttavia, tali cambiamenti non sono sufficienti per arrestare il crescente deficit, e la situazione sta diventando critica.
Per rendere il cambiamento più inclusivo, sembra opportuno sviluppare dei progetti speciali per i diritti dei gruppi degli esclusi in ogni comunità. Per preservare la loro inclusione sociale occorrerebbe incoraggiare le attività locali; accrescere la responsabilizzazione nella vita comunitaria; fornire servizi chiave a livello locale; coinvolgere gli abitanti nel miglioramento dell’ambiente e nei lavori sociali; investire in progetti culturali e religiosi; pedonalizzare per una mobilità più sostenibile; formare cooperative nei quartieri e finanziare in modo sostenibile le infrastrutture.
Per migliorare accessibilità e mobilità bisognerebbe sviluppare il sistema dei trasporti pubblici. Ci dovrebbero essere sia buoni trasporti che un buon sistema di comunicazione. Le città possono creare incentivi e promuovere politiche che favoriscono il trasporto di massa. Inoltre connessioni sicure, funzionali e verdi permetterebbero di riqualificare lo spazio pubblico e renderlo più inclusivo. In particolare saranno le vie pedonali a riattivare lo spazio pubblico, che insieme alla mixité funzionale contribuiranno alla sua reintegrazione.
Sembra necessario, inoltre, incoraggiare le iniziative promosse dagli abitanti a livello di quartiere e integrarle nelle strutture e nelle reti a livello comunale. Dovremmo concentrarci sull’obiettivo di rendere in particolare le città tradizionali più inclusive e proprio là fornire gli spunti necessari per innescare tale processo. Non si dovrebbe scendere a compromessi soprattutto per quanto riguarda la forma, la cultura e gli stili di vita della città tradizionale. I suoi abitanti dovrebbero apprezzarne la funzionalità, ed essa dovrebbe adattarsi ai cambiamenti in corso.
Le sue potenzialità in termini di inclusione dovrebbero essere sfruttate per renderne lo sviluppo più sostenibile. Ciò può essere fatto, da un lato, pianificando e sviluppando le nuove realtà urbane come eco-città con prevalenza di caratteristiche parzialmente rurali e minori standard; dall’altro lato, riqualificando le città e gli insediamenti storici facendo attenzione a renderli più inclusivi, utilizzando le potenzialità delle reti sociali e del patrimonio esistente per ridare vita alle attività autoctone.
Le città affrontano oggi problemi vari, sempre più numerosi, relativi a diversi gruppi della popolazione quali i giovani, gli anziani, i disabili e così via, portatori di istanze differenti per natura. È dunque necessario soddisfare i bisogni di tali gruppi le cui prospettive sono diverse. Il concetto di “città inclusiva” è legato ad una comunità funzionante e prosperosa. Una società è ideale quando i bisogni dell’uomo sono soddisfatti dagli sforzi della comunità stessa, e dove le persone sono portate ad aggiungere valore alla comunità a cui appartengono e con la quale si identificano. In tale società, le persone vivono in armonia con il loro ambiente, e sono meno vulnerabili alle possibili minacce. Non devono preoccuparsi troppo di rispondere da soli alle proprie necessità, ma gli è permesso contribuirvi in base alle proprie possibilità. La loro felicità dipende dai servizi che sono in grado di fornire alla comunità, trovando un ambiente che facilità il lavoro.
Nonostante le città storiche della Valle di Kathmandu siano dei buoni esempi di città inclusive, tuttavia sono sottoposte ad una crescente minaccia: è facile infatti osservare dei conflitti di interesse tra le tendenze globali e le caratteristiche intrinseche a tali città che si è tentato di danneggiare per più di un secolo. Alcuni dei fattori che sostengono la loro inclusione possono essere così riassunti: la forte resistenza al cambiamento data dalla loro lunga storia; un disegno degli spazi che incoraggia coesione e inclusione; elementi che favoriscono la mobilità pedonale; una cultura di condivisione della povertà e una condivisione dello spazio urbano che incoraggia la mixité grazie alle attività culturali e religiose disseminate nel corso dell’anno.
È dunque grazie all’antichità e alla persistente resistenza al cambiamento che gli investimenti di larga scala che avrebbero potuto distruggere il carattere proprio degli insediamenti non hanno mai preso il via. Tuttavia ciò ha avuto dei costi immensi e la vita della gente comune non è stata facile. Il ruolo del governo deve cambiare e deve supportare le azioni degli abitanti in modo che la loro capacità di inclusione possa dispiegarsi ed essere promossa. Il governo dovrebbe capire che i cambiamenti moderni verranno ostacolati se non ci saranno delle misure di adattamento, e che ogni tipo di conflitto di interesse renderà lo sviluppo più costoso e meno sostenibile. In particolare, il conflitto tra il miglioramento degli standard abitativi delle persone e la conservazione del patrimonio culturale deve essere risolto coinvolgendo le persone e attraverso l’impiego di tecnologie che permettano una maggior integrazione tra cultura e sviluppo.
Riferimenti

– Corbett, G. et. al., (1995), Kathmandu: seven studies in urban renewal, Winnipeg: University of Manitoba.
– Haaland, A., (1985), Bhaktapur: A Town Changing, revised edition, Kathmandu: GTZ.
– Hanson, J. (2004) “The inclusive city: delivering a more accessible urban environment through inclusive design’’, RICS Cobra 2004 International Construction Conference: responding to change, http; www.eprints.ucl.ac.uk/3351.
– Joshi, Jibgar, (2008), “Sustainable Provision of Urban Environmental Services in Kathmandu Valley”, paper presented at 2nd ICBED, University Sains Malaysia.
– Joshi, Jibgar, (2009), Regional Strategies for Sustainable Development in Nepal, Kathmandu: Lajmina Joshi.
– Joshi, Jibgar, (2011). Managing Environment and Cities for Sustainable Development, Kathmandu: Lajmina Joshi.
– MoPE (Ministry of Population and Environment), (1999), Environmental Planning and Management of the Kathmandu Valley, Kathmandu: MoPE/IUCN.
– Rodwin, L., (1981). Cities and City Planning, New York/London: Plenum Press.
– Safier, M., (1996), “The Cosmopolitan Challenge in Cities on the Edge of the Millennium: Moving from Conflict to Co-existence”, in City 3-4, Oxford.
– The Inclusive City, http: www.inclusivecity.com.
Data di pubblicazione: 15 agosto 2012
Home > Archivio > 242

Kathmandu
Kathmandu: tante città, una sola Valle
La Valle in cifre

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1. What would a new urban ethos be?

A new urban ethos should realise the linkage between rural and urban issues. We just entered the urban millennium. Despite the rural concerns of the last century, urban issues and problems have dominated the human life. With the shift to an urbanizing world, human challenges have immensely increased. More recently, we realized that urban development is linked with rural potentials. The last few decades dwelt on urban development without directly ignoring rural issues. We failed to
ensure rural development because we remained largely anti-urban. Cities that can adjust to modern changes without giving away the traditional virtues could respond to the urban challenge. We should recognize that cities would no longer be for the few. They have to be increasingly inclusive. This century will see cities becoming more competitive. Urban governance will become more and more difficult. Residents will have to spend more time, money and efforts to get the minimum services and amenities. There is increasing threat of insecurity and crimes. An increasing number of the city residents would have nostalgic feelings for the rural virtue. Liveability of our cities will depend on their “ruralness”. People will crave to be nearer to nature. Cities would be encouraged to have more and more rural elements. More liveable spaces would be required. Good governance, access to all, and peaceful environment would be the urban ethos. It will be necessary to redefine what is urban.
2. What are major obstacles in making the global transition to an urban ethos?
The concept of ecological footprints has underpinned the need of rural areas for sustainable cities. When will urban consumers realize the ecological footprints of their way of life? When will urban governance be prepared to realize the environmental costs of urban ways of life? Hastening to an urban world would ignore the balance between rural and urban areas. This will increase environmental problems like solid waste management and air pollution in cities. It has become difficult to enhance our ability to use land with rural and urban characteristics in a balanced way. In the recent past obsession towards cities raised standards and hence costs. Behavioral changes became difficult. Cities ceased to be manageable or viable.

3. What should the role of the United Nations be in the process of transition?
Develop an integrative system
The transition is a change in the pattern and style of development. Urban style as perceived in the last century is not a sustainable style. UNCHS should help the global community to redefine this style to make it sustainable. An integrated system should be developed where cities would be supported by the hinterland they serve. It can help member countries to identify city regions and encourage their development. They should aim at increasing the total carrying capacity on a sustainable manner. It can also help them establish good governance at the level of identified regions. And the goal should be equitable access of all to urban amenities and regional resources.
Jibgar Joshi

jibgar-joshi ppt.presentation slides

Abstract
The purpose of the paper is to explore what elements lead to policy formulation and how to improve it. For solving the problems of the society and for satisfying the needs of its people, any nation creates some mechanisms to help it to make policies; and takes decisions that facilitate actions. Even today, the government plays a primary role. And others, people as well as their organizations, are governed by the government to do what it prescribes in the form of its policies. With the increasing complexity in project implementation, the government has invited the private sector to be partners in its pursuit for development. Both the government and the private sector carry out their jobs through appropriate institutions, which enjoy the status of legal entities. This led to a new paradigm in the process of implementation. The politicians as well as the professionals who are playing the key role in the transformation of the Nepali society have used institutions to protect themselves from any sort of risks. It has become difficult to make any one accountable. As a result, the gap between what is planned and what is done has widened; and implementation continued to be weak. With more and more intricacies coming up in the system, the number of institutions grew; and accountability became more and more difficult to be enforced. There is thus the need for the creation of a system where, service provision is encouraged; better services should mean better returns and better incentives. Recognizing this, the paper looks at an alternative to institution building. It works on exploring the ways of transforming institution for evolving appropriate policies at different levels to alleviate poverty by increasing access of the people to services.

The value of governance in general and policy in particular is measured in terms of the quality of the services that the people receive and their level of contentment. The faith of the people in the government policy is eroding. Institutions will thrive only when they do not hinder personal development. The convergence of the individual goal and that of the organization as a whole is necessary for an effective delivery of services. Organizations can shape its members and align them to its goals. They should enjoy autonomy for better performance. We have created organizations under a divide and rule policy for so many years. This means it will not be easy to change the organizational culture in a short span of time. Policy formulation for enhancing social good in any form should therefore deal with institutional requirements at the same time. The paper deals with the limitations of the public and the private sector in enhancing the social good; and highlights how civil societies, NEA in particular, should and could build pressure for change. Instead of working for institutions that are involved in making more rules and regulations that make the system complex and reduce the access of the people to services, NEA should motivate engineers to work with community driven initiatives. The paper underscores the role of technology and the need for efforts on R & D. It focuses on community-based approach as a means of evolving sustainable policies.

Keywords: social good, policy, institution, NEA, civil societies, community initiatives.

Abstract

The paper views urbanization as a driver of economic growth as well as poverty alleviation in Nepal. It will analyze the urbanization trend in Nepal focusing on the following three issues in particular:
1. Competitiveness of cities,
2. Inclusive service, and
3. Fiscal sustainability of municipalities.
Nepal has natural resource advantage; but this is not fully used due to lack of market coordination and low productivity. The pace of urbanization is highest in Nepal among the countries of South Asia. It has led to economic growth. There is a high correlation between the two. The contribution of the urban sector to GDP is increasing fast. However, there is a lack of a holistic approach to positioning cities as engines of economic growth, business incubation and skills enhancement. The only way to raise and sustain economic growth of Nepal is to enhance the competitiveness of her cities by using their comparative advantages. She has not been able to make use of such advantages due to lack of infrastructure and institutional constraints. Cities are suffering from acute shortage of infrastructure and services. They compete in attracting investments. Urban infrastructure is not adequate to sustain the growth impulses, which has led to the erosion of competitiveness of cities. The paper will make a rigorous economic analysis on the competitiveness of cities. Based on the analysis, it will explain what has limited their competitiveness and what has hindered the economic transition of the country.
Urbanization in Nepal has helped to reduce poverty. However, one of its challenges is growing exclusion. There is a lack of inclusiveness in service delivery as evidenced by poor services and slum areas. It has become difficult to sustain the inclusive nature of traditional towns. There is an increasing exclusion of the poor from service delivery. There are problems related to fiscal sustainability. Failure to mobilize the private sector has slowed down economic growth. The purpose of the paper is to address such issues and challenges of managing urbanization in Nepal. It aims to explore ways and means of transforming Nepal’s economy through increased investments in the lead activities of urban regions that have comparative advantages.
The paper will begin with an analysis of the trend of urbanization in Nepal and explain its economic causes and impacts. Due to constraints in connectivity and power shortage, it has become difficult to use the linkage opportunities and growth impulses. This has led to import-intensive activities at the cost of basic industries. As a result, the economy has become less resilient and less competitive. The paper will explore how infrastructure can be better planned to sustain growth impulses in order to make cities economically more competitive. It will deal with how to make cities more competitive in attracting investments. The role of the cities as the engines of economic growth with the use of their comparative advantages has been threatened by the growing deficits in infrastructure. Recognizing this, the paper will deal with how to manage infrastructure to enable cities to attract investments.
Every part of the nation is urbanizing in its own way. In the process, opportunities are created; but they are not shared equally. The access of the poor to services has decreased over the years. The paper will explore the effect of urbanization on the increasing trend of exclusion in service delivery. It will discuss the impacts of global economy and exposure to outside culture on the livability of cities. It will assess the extent of exclusion of slum areas and the poor in the urbanization process. It will explore ways and means of halting the trend of increasing disparity with regional imbalances and formation of slums and squatters. It will explore the economic causes of increasing exclusion. It will assess how the participation of the people in service delivery will reduce this. It will address the issues of slums and their challenges.
Based on the analysis of the comparative advantages of cities, the paper will explore the causes of failure in utilizing these for development. In order to use the opportunities created by urbanization, it is necessary to invest in lead activities with high forward and backward linkages. It will be based on an analysis of the multiplier effects of lead activities of different cities. It will work on how to make a breakthrough in creating more resilient and more self-reliant urban economies. This will be directed towards making economic transformation through the creation of export base. Finally, the paper will deal with the required changes in institution related to governance and financing. Future costs of urbanization are likely to increase at a rapid rate because of depletion of resources. The paper will explore ways and means of providing infrastructure in a more productive, affordable and inclusive manner. It will assess the fiscal deficit of municipalities. It will suggest strategies for improving their fiscal sustainability.
Research Methodology: For the preparation of the paper, rigorous research will be carried out. It will be primarily based on secondary data and information. Available data will be analyzed to show the trend of urbanization in Nepal. Preliminary findings of the research will be discussed with the concerned stakeholders. Consultative processes will be followed to finalize the outputs of the research.
Urbanization is easily understood and accepted as an inevitable process. However, where the population will be located in the future is not easy to predict. This will depend on economic opportunities that are created through investments in infrastructure and industry as well as policies on trade and transit. Investments in areas with greater growth potential and higher multiplier effects will yield greater return in the long run. Efforts will thus be made to link these together. This will make urban development more effective and inclusive.
Forward and backward linkages of some of the lead activities will be assessed with a view to build up of the competitiveness of potential sectors. The research will aim to identify economic activities with comparative advantages to trigger economic growth and create jobs for both urban and rural poor. It will help to prioritize investments in infrastructure that are needed to support the potential growth sectors. Efforts will be made to prepare a framework for prioritizing activities on the basis of potential for growth impulses and multiplier effects. Besides, it will address the following issues:
• How can cities help the integration of the economy of Nepal in the wake of growing competitiveness?
• How should the sustainable use of domestic resources and the impacts of globalization be considered in the process?
As a case study, an urban region will be selected and analyzed considering several issues including the following:
• Poverty and population dynamics;
• Unleashing economic growth in relation to resource base and potentials;
• Rural-urban linkage potentials;
• Locational analysis and identification of lead activities;
• Investments in infrastructure; and
• Alternate forms of entitlement (e.g., vocational training, urban skills etc.) in growth centers.
The research will be directed to explore the possibility of enhancing its economic base and resilience. It will use quantitative and/or objective methodology to identify investment areas for maximizing impacts with minimum resource and to find out an inclusive development strategy to boost up both urban and rural growth. Existing linkages will be measured in terms of growth, equity and sustainability. Efforts will also be made to link these with enhancing linkages with the outside economy. The different factors that determine the competitiveness of cities will be identified. This will be related with the needs of the global economy and tied up with the integration of Nepal’s economy with the same.
The research will relate service delivery with affordable standards and access as well as pricing policies. It will be directed towards increasing competitiveness in the supply of infrastructure and services and ensuring equitable pricing and fiscal policies. It will deal with issues of cost sharing through a rigorous study of innovative approaches like land pooling. For an analysis of fiscal sustainability, how investments are planned and made will be studied. Ways of monitoring the costs of urbanization will be devisd in order to recover the costs. Various tools of impact analysis with a focus on the role of participatory planning will be used to increase affordability and reduce exclusion. It will devise tools to identify feasible projects and ways of financing them.

Abstract
The paper views urbanization as a driver of economic growth as well as poverty alleviation in Nepal. Nepal has natural resource advantage; but this is not fully used due to lack of market coordination and low productivity. The only way to raise and sustain economic growth is to enhance the competitiveness of cities using their comparative advantages. Nepal has not been able to make use of such advantages due to infrastructure deficit and institutional constraints. Cities are suffering from acute shortage of infrastructure and services. This has limited their competitiveness; and hindered the economic transition of the country. There is a lack of inclusiveness in service delivery as evidenced by poor services in slum areas. It has become difficult to sustain the inclusive nature of traditional towns. There is an increasing exclusion of the poor from service delivery. There is a lack of a holistic approach to positioning cities as engines of economic growth, business incubation, and skills enhancement. Urban infrastructure is not adequate to sustain the growth impulses, which has led to the erosion of competitiveness of cities. There are problems related to fiscal sustainability. Failure to mobilize the private sector has slowed down economic growth. The purpose of the paper is to address such issues and challenges of managing urbanization in Nepal. It aims to explore ways and means of transforming Nepal’s economy through increased investments in the lead activities of her urban regions that have comparative advantages.
The paper will begin with an analysis of the trend of urbanization in Nepal and explain its economic causes and implications. The pace of urbanization is highest in Nepal among the countries of South Asia. Urbanization in Nepal has led to economic growth. There is a high correlation between the two. It has helped to reduce poverty. The contribution of the urban sector to GDP is increasing fast. However, the access of the poor to services has decreased over the years. The paper will discusses the inclusive nature of traditional towns of Nepal and explore the economic causes of increasing exclusion. It will explore the implications of urbanization on the increasing trend of exclusion in service delivery. It will discuss the impacts of global economy and exposure to outside culture on livability. It will assess the extent of exclusion of slum areas and poorer people in the urbanization process. It will explore ways and means of halting the trend of increasing disparity with regional imbalances and formation of slums and squatters. Due to constraints in connectivity and power shortage, it has become difficult to use the linkage opportunities and growth impulses. The sudden openness after the change of 1990 and the growing remittance led to increase in dependency on outside economies. This led to import-intensive activities, real estate development, and housing at the cost of basic industries that enhance economic resilience. As a result, cities’ competitiveness has decreased. The paper will investigate how infrastructure can be better planned to sustain growth impulses making cities economically more competitive. It will deal with how to make cities more competitive in attracting investments. It will discuss the products of urban planning efforts and show how these can be made more useful in sustaining economic development through the delivery of infrastructure and services for housing and business. The growing economic role of the cities with the use of their comparative advantages has been threatened by the growing infrastructure deficits. Recognizing this, the paper will deal with how to make investments in infrastructure more result-oriented. It will show how infrastructure should be managed to enable cities to attract investments.
The paper will identify urban regions of Nepal. It will then explore the causes of failure to utilize their comparative advantages for development. In order to use the opportunities created by urbanization, it is necessary to invest in their lead activities. It will assess the impact of planning efforts on shaping the urbanization. Urbanizing rural areas in a planned way is the shortest way to urban growth and to sustain national productivity. It will try to show how to foster and sustain the growth of Nepal’s urban regions and enhance their competitiveness in ensuring sustainable development. It will suggest strategies to increase their competitiveness. It will work on how to make a breakthrough in creating more resilient and more self-reliant urban economies. This will be directed towards making economic transformation through the creation of export base. Finally, the paper will make an analysis of institutional set-up. It will deal with the required changes in institution related to governance and financing. It will suggest strategies for improving fiscal sustainability.

ABSTRACT
The pace of urbanization is highest in Nepal among the countries of South Asia. This has led to economic growth. The contribution of the urban sector to GDP is increasing fast. Cities compete in attracting investments. They are suffering from acute shortage of infrastructure and services. This has made it difficult to sustain the growth impulses, which have made cities less competitive with increasing exclusion. Adjustments take place to sustain competitiveness at the cost of inclusiveness.
Urbanization has helped a key role in reducing poverty in Nepal. The inclusiveness of cities has helped to make it sustainable in the past. However, the opportunities created by it are not used for making cities more inclusive. One of its challenges at present is growing exclusion. There is a lack of inclusiveness in service delivery as evidenced by the poor level of urban services and ever-growing slum areas. The paper deals with urbanization process in Nepal and analyzes the trend. It views inclusive development as a necessary condition for managing the provision of urban services. It explores the causes of the increasing trend of exclusion in service delivery. It highlights the distributive role of the cities and tries to show how the poor and peripheral regions are mainstreamed into the national development process.
The paper deals with the emerging issues of inclusive development in the context of rapid urbanization in Nepal. It highlights the inclusive element of urban development as an integral part of the larger urbanization process. It explores the characteristics of an inclusive city. It highlights the potentials of an inclusive city in making development more sustainable. It works on the relationship between inclusiveness and city clusters. It shows how inclusive nature of urban development helped the growth of the Kathmandu Valley in the past. It also shows how this can be replicated in the shaping of new urban centres and in the renewal of traditional towns.
Cities were never found to show any diseconomies of scale, as they became able to contain and sustain the growing disparity in a political way. In the wake of global competition, the costs in terms of human sufferings of rapid urban growth are generally ignored. The notion of competitiveness is a potent one. Its adverse impacts on the poor will be reduced through inclusiveness. Cities should rely on their collaborative advantages in order to sustain their competitiveness. The towns in the foothills and the terai could be encouraged to form city clusters and growth corridors to enhance inclusive urban growth. The paper suggests for the inclusive development of the Biratnagar corridor based on trans-boundary collaboration.
The paper aims to explore ways and means of transforming Nepal’s economy through increased investments in the lead activities of urban regions with comparative advantages that promote inclusiveness. It deals with the ways and means of halting the trend of increasing disparity with regional imbalances and formation of slums and squatters. It explores the causes of increasing exclusion. It shows how the participation of the people in service delivery will reduce this. In order to use the opportunities created by urbanization, it is necessary to invest in lead activities with high forward and backward linkages. The paper works on how to make a breakthrough in creating more resilient and more self-reliant urban economies. Future costs of urbanization are likely to increase at a rapid rate because of depletion of resources. The paper examines the fiscal deficit of municipalities; and suggests strategies for reducing it. There are problems related to fiscal sustainability due to exclusion. The situation will improve as more and more people get integrated into the process of service delivery. For this, it is necessary to support cities’ to build inclusiveness into their investment agenda. The paper tries to identify what investments would make them more inclusive. It deals with the changes in governance and financing required for enhancing inclusiveness. It deals with how investments should be planned for inclusive service delivery and fiscal sustainability of cities.
The government has not been able to appreciate the sustainability role of cities. The paper underscores the need for raising awareness; draws inferences from the way cities respond to state actions; and examines the role of the government in making cities more inclusive. It finally drives at policy-making for the promotion of such cities through a two-pronged strategy. The first is managing the cluster economy of Kathmandu in the light of increasing exclusion and the need for deconcentration. The second is the promotion of inclusive city clusters along the viable corridors.

This book is concerned with housing and urban development in Nepal. Nepal is urbanizing fast. The level of urbanization was only 3.6% in 1971. It is, at present, about 17%. During the period, the total population increased from 11.6 million to about 26.5 millions.
The urban sector contributes significantly to national development. Not only that the contribution of the sector to the national GDP is high, most activities take place in urban areas. It is but natural that problems of coordination are nowhere as acute as in the urban areas. Urbanization has influenced human life in many ways not only in urban areas but also in the rural regions of the world. To-day almost all the aspects of development respond to new demands that it has urged.
After the mid 1980s, there had been many positive changes as regards to housing and urban development in Nepal. Enormous investments were made in the sector. Savings are mobilized through housing finance and infrastructure investments. There is an adequate increase in human resources engaged in urban development. Local resource base has been widened. People have become more aware and empowered. The absolute poverty level in urban areas has dropped significantly. More of the financial resources have been drawn to urban centers. There has been a growing realization of the need for decentralized government action. People are empowered as they become engaged in community action on the provision of urban services. This has also urged political changes. It is becoming more difficult to provide infrastructure d services to the growing population. Housing conditions, in both rural and urban areas, have deteriorated. As a result, poverty has increased; and living environment has not improved.
The purpose of the book is twofold. The first is to present the existing situation of housing and urban development and to analyze the trend of urbanization. It makes an analytical review of the experiences and efforts made since 1976. After dealing with the problems and issues, it attempts to suggest strategies to facilitate housing and urban development in the country. The second is concerned with the process of implementation. It works on governance; and shows why we ought to pursue a participatory process of development. It tries to link governance with the provision of housing and urban services in Nepal.
The concept of housing should be comprehensive. People migrate to towns and cities for jobs and income. As they earn, they build their houses in towns and cities. Housing process initiated by the people influences the development of human settlements markedly. Towns and cities are created, shaped, and molded by their actions.
When people are engaged in the production of goods and services, there are more jobs, production, and economic growth. With the increasing cost of the provision of services, poverty will be more linked to these in the coming days. The cost of service provision will also increase as natural resources get used up. People should be encouraged to invest in their settlements and use their resources, talents, and skills. It should be realized that the cost of getting services through other means is costly and will be still more costly in the future.
Chapter I gives a general profile of Nepal and deals with the increasing importance of human settlements development. Housing process helps the development of towns and cities. With the increase in the level of services, settlements should be developed as viable economic entities. Recognizing its role in rural and national development, urban development is getting more and more attention.
Chapter II is concerned with urbanization in Nepal. It provides the distribution of urban population over the nation; and presents the trend to the year 2021. It explores the relationship between urbanization and development. It deals with the linkages between urban and rural areas.
The next chapter puts forward the concept of housing and housing process. The changes since 1976 are also presented with a view to evaluate the progress made in the sector. It depicts the existing situation of housing in Nepal. It makes a general assessment of the existing level of urban services. It also shows that, despite many positive changes, living and working environment in urban areas has not improved. Housing is being considered more as economic goods to be produced and traded.
Chapter IV gives a review of urban policies and programs. It discusses the problems and issues of urban development. It works on the goals and objectives of urban development. Urban policies and strategies are viewed at two levels: the urban level and the supra urban level. Even though the pace of urbanization is rapid, Nepal is still predominantly rural. Urban areas by definition are more developed and hence more capable of exploiting the benefits of urbanization. The spatial dimension of an urban strategy has a direct bearing on the formation of a viable national urban system. To reach the rural areas, one has to pass through a system of urban settlements. Cities should provide services to their hinterland and the resources should be used in a sustainable way. It is necessary to develop city regions.
Chapter V deals with housing strategies and different options of housing delivery. The importance of standards and norms is discussed and criteria for setting these are analyzed. The key components of housing are land, finance, building materials and construction technology. Organized housing and land development, upgrading and owner-builder housing are the major options of housing delivery. The large proportion of the population in our cities can be called slum dwellers; the worst manifestation of urban poverty, deprivation, and exclusion in the modern world. The chapter also deals with urban upgrading and regeneration. Chapter VI deals with land as a key element of housing. It gives different perspectives on land and discusses different land development strategies. Chapter VII deals with technology and building materials as important building blocks. For housing and urban development, technology is critical. Nepal has a good potential to develop local resources for housing. However, the progress is slow; and much needs to be achieved in terms of building materials and construction technology. On one hand, it is necessary to transform the traditional ways to make them more sustainable. On the other hand, it is necessary to adapt modern alternatives to local conditions. Chapter VIII deals with housing finance and analyzes the problems of urban financing. Housing and urban development policies are presently not backed by investment commitments; and financing mechanisms are not clear. In order to get more resources, it is necessary to enhance the returns to investments and contribute to poverty alleviation. Based on the returns that would be generated, future investments become available. Infrastructure costs need to be recovered to make their production self-financing. Resources need to be drawn from the market for the construction and maintenance of infrastructure. When the costs of these can be recouped through the use of the infrastructure, sustainable funding will become possible. The people at large have found it increasingly difficult to meet their housing needs. The widening gap between the investment required and the affordability of the target group is the major problem. The ever-increasing land prices, inadequate housing loans, and poor cost recovery on urban investments are the major problems in the provision of housing and urban services. It is necessary to enhance fiscal sustainability.
The government makes policies but is not committed to their implementation. Irrespective of what the government does, changes do take place and policies must be responsive to changes. In view of these, chapter IX tries to analyze the implementation process. Implementation analysis will help to identify the problems and issues relating to the management of urban services. It is necessary to understand how the process is being implemented to make any sort of intervention. It should be linked with the formulation of policies in order to make them clear and consistent. Understanding of the policies and their evaluation in terms of the realization of goals and results are essential since development takes place because of several conflicting forces. It is necessary to make goals and polices explicit and clear. Some of the policies are not intended to be implemented. It is not easy to ensure coordination as many actors are managing the process of urban development. It is necessary to mobilize resources owned by all for urban development. It should influence other policies for ensuring sustainable provision of goods and services in a fair manner. After making an implementation analysis, the chapter deals with some institutional requirements.
Chapter X gives a historical perspective and a review on efforts towards decentralization. It deals with strategies for deepening it. The need to link it with local empowerment is highlighted. It is concerned with strategies for strengthening local government action.
The implementation of policies, plans, and programs rests on governance. The subject matter of chapter XI is urban governance. It deals with the changing role of government. The role of the national government is changing rather fast. It is necessary to emphasize on local governance. Instead of controlling, good governance depends on influencing the actors that their actions become compatible with agreed goals. The concept of good governance needs to be linked with effective delivery of services. It is necessary to strengthen the local base. The goal of decentralization should be to improve people’s participation. It should promote inclusive development and ensure access of all to services. Institution evolves through the working of key players, the government, business, and the civil society. It must deal with the people and their organizations. It suggests strategies for enhancing participation and privatization as well as partnership building.. Cities should work closely with urban planning agencies. Cities develop from a multiplicity of large and small initiatives and investments. There is an increased sharing of power between national and city government. With this, cities have to guide, support and encourage families, community organizations, and private sector to contribute to housing and urban development. It is essential that all the territorial controls within their areas should be exercised either by them or with their consent. They should be encouraged to produce and sell services and recover costs. To sustain the business of urban goods and services, it is necessary to satisfy the service takers; and this is not happening. By providing services, we have to make our cities more competitive. Most investments are made in real estate for making returns in a short period. The challenge is how to use the limited resources in more productive ways. Urban financing mechanisms need to be improved for the sustainable provision of infrastructure and services with adequate cost recovery. Self-financing schemes such as land readjustment projects should be promoted. As a public good, infrastructure is most needed; and in most cases provides more benefits to the society compared to others. This is why the private sector needs to be attracted more to investing in infrastructure. Chapter XII is the concluding chapter with a summary drawing the main points of the book.

Urbanization is a major determinant of economic growth in Nepal. Howeveer it has increased inequality, particularly in terms of access to urban goods and services. Most people are coping with differnt types of pressures due to urbanization to get access to essential services while a few are consuming the bulk of the urban goods and services. This is the major challenge of sustainable development in Nepal and the new urban agenda should address this issue.
Just a few years ago, I have mentioned in my book “Managing Environment and Cities for Sustainable Development” that the balancing of the three elements of sustaiable development – growth, equity and environment, is specific to the stage of development of a particular country and a poor country cannot afford to contribute to equity or environment much. The principle of CBDR also shows that the richer nations who are more responsibe in depleting the Planet’s resource should have mroe responsibility. If urbanization makes some people more fortunate, they should be encouraged to contribute to social capital. The implementation of this requires governance with an objective towards inclusion and an commitment to realize the costs of the consumption of environmental resources. Urban legislaton should be construed towards this end to make urbanization and the new urban agenda work for inclusive sustainable growth,