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INTRODUCTION

The paper deals with the worsening condition of the environment in Kathmandu Valley. It gives an analysis of the transformation of the Valley; and identifies the causes that have helped to sustain its ecology and social system. It tries to address how its identity and character have survived so far. The Valley is urbanizing at a rapid pace. This has led to many environmental problems; and the needs of the increasing population could not be met. People leave their native villages and come here to get some kind of work in an informal setting. Their incomes are so small that they cannot afford most of the environmental services. This makes the environment deplorable for them to live or work. Most people in the Valley do not have access to adequate water and sanitation. There is an increasing shortage of water. The problems of solid waste management and the poor condition of roads have worsened the environment. The quality of life is declining due to pollution in terms of carbon emission, waste generation, noise, ugliness, and dirt. People get urban services in different ways. In the provision of these, the primary objective of the government is not to enhance the quality of environment as such. Despite huge investments in infrastructure, the needs of the people are not met. Nor has there been any increase in the physical assets to enhance the ability to meet the future needs. The paper looks at alternative ways of providing services. It highlights the relevance of traditional ways that people used to manage their ambience. It works on how these can be used to develop new areas while sustaining the ecological resources of the Valley. It finally suggests measures for the revival of traditional ways of living with a view to support the Valley level service networks.

2.   URBANIZATION IN KATHMANDU VALLEY

Kathmandu Valley is a unique area with outstanding geography. It is rich in its cultural heritage with famous architecture. It includes the districts of Kathmandu (except one Village Development Committee) and Bhaktapur, and most part of the district of Lalitpur. It has a metropolis, a sub-metropolis, and three municipal towns. It has several small towns and about 350 villages and hamlets. There are 97 Village Development Committees in it. It is the main destination of most tourists visiting Nepal. There are seven important sites in the Valley listed in the World Heritage. They are the three Durbar Squares, Changu Narayan, Swoyambhu Hills, Boudhanath, and Pashupatinath. Besides, there are many stupas, chaityas, and bahals worth preserving. It is well known for its traditional urbanism. Even today, it has a traditional way of living.

Kathmandu Valley

The population of the Valley was 1.61 million in 2001. It doubled during the period 1981 – 2001. At present, it is estimated to be growing at the rate of about four percent annually; and it is about 2.4 million at present.  The urban population in the Valley was nearly a million in 2001 (Table 1). It is projected to reach 1.9 million in 2011.

Table 1. Population, Area and Selected Services

Indicator	Kathmandu Valley
1991	2001
Population, 2001 (Million)	1.09	1.61
Density (persons/ha)	16.2	24.2
Total Area (ha)	66,560	66,650
Population growth rate	4.0
Urban density(persons/ha)	61.5	92.6
Proportion of urban area (%)	14.4	15.8
Proportion of agricultural land (%)	56.1	41.4
Level of urbanization (%)	54.1	60.5
Hh with modern toilet (%)		65.83
Hh with ordinary toilet (%)		23.88
Hh with piped water (%)		82.60
	Kathmandu Metropolis
Total area (ha)		4,780
Solid waste generation  (kg per capita)		166
Percent solid waste collection		50
Hh with electricity connection (%)		82.7
Sewerage (%)		25
Water consumption (lpcd)		80

The total area of the Valley is 66,650 ha. The proportion of urban area in the Valley was only 11 percent in 1991. It increased to 16 percent in 2001. The social system is still largely based on agriculture.

It suffers from atmospheric inversions; and the wind does not easily sweep away air pollutants. Farmland has been rapidly converted to urban uses since 1970. Between 1984 and 1994, urban area in the Valley increased from 3,096 ha to 8,378 ha; and 5,382 ha of the fertile land were lost in the process of unplanned urbanization. (MoPE/IUCN 1999, p.79). The river system is deteriorating with the dumping of urban wastes. Due to ecological sensitivity, most land is not suited for urban development.

The Valley is urbanizing rapidly; and with this, the disparity between the rich and the poor has been increasing. At the same time, the fragile ecosystem of the Valley has been seriously affected. Nevertheless, it is still livable and inclusive; and it has been so far able to maintain its identity and character. It is the home of several historical towns and settlements with immense cultural value. The urban heritage has still remained more or less intact; and is an integral part of a living culture, not just a museum. The historical sites are not yet impaired by the emerging threats. In spite of upheavals and threats during different periods of time, they survived. Their survival can be explained by the richness of the culture; highly efficient urban form and dynamism; sustainable planning of the settlements with judicious use of land and open spaces; and their social, economic and cultural significance even for the contemporary Nepali society. The medieval towns are built as compact settlements and are highly efficient in terms of transportation and land use. They help to satisfy economic, social, religious, and cultural needs of their residents.

Cultural and religious features have dominated the economy of the Valley. The growth of the urban economy can largely be explained by its unique cultural features and its natural attractiveness. Public investment is definitely not the key factor. The heritage by itself served as a magnetic pole. Activities and investments were drawn because of it. Its very attractiveness and obsession and perhaps adulation made it vulnerable at the same time; and led to commercialization. The unique type of urban heritage has served as an integral part of the urban economy. It is of great value even today although people do not feel it nor appreciate it.

Urban development created lots of wealth in the Valley and the people became rich because of land they possess. But only a little could be invested in improving the services that are necessary to make it more sustainable; and the urban areas remained poor. This means economic progress in the near future is likely to be affected due to lack of services. This will also affect the carrying capacity in the future; and productivity will also decline. Moreover, investments need to be increased in order to make cities able to afford most of the amenities.

It has become necessary to shape the urbanization of the Valley in such a way that everyone gets access to environmental services and the Valley develop as a bio-region. Threats are mainly due to the ever increasing needs that can not go unsatisfied. The growth has urged for more services. When services are provided in more sustainable ways, threats will be minimized.

3.   ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES (ES)

ES refer to various types of infrastructure and services necessary for good urban environment in order to make cities livable. These include potable water and sanitation; parking areas and access roads; drainage and garbage disposal; and management of eco-system and open space. These are required not only to raise the living standard of the people but also to enhance economic growth and sustain it over a long period. The failure to manage urbanization has led to the creation of slums with health problems.

The linkage between economic growth and services is cyclic. The more developed a city is, better will be the services it can provide; and better the services are, more efficient will it be, which in turn will make services more affordable. ES are thus a key to sustainable urban development in the Valley.

 Strategies to manage urbanization are linked with the sustainable ways of providing ES. These should focus on making towns and cities of the Valley more inclusive and livable using its potentials in creating a self-reliant economy. The viability of such measures depends on the nearness of the people with the decision-making process. People get alienated when service agencies are kept at a distance. This leads to inefficiency and leakage in the system. Such agencies resort to poor imitation of external models. They ignore the value of community efforts.

ES locally produced by the people cost much less compared to the same produced by the formal sectors. This has in fact made ES unaffordable. When people work to improve their ambience, changes are possible. But unfortunately, the contribution that people used to make in the past in the improvement of their ambience has decreased.  For some extra income they work long hours and cannot spare any time for the improvement of their settlements. Today, they either pay for or remain deprived of even the basic services.

Living in slums is considered as a sign of poverty. Slums are areas where people live without adequate ES. We today spend a great deal of our earnings to solve the newly created problems of urban life. This is an indicator of unsustainable ways. It also means using less sustainable ways of life.

4.   PROBLEMS AND ISSUES

4.1       Worsening Condition of Environment

Kathmandu Valley is urbanizing very fast. Due to rapid increase in the population and the exposure to modern amenities, the pressure on environmental resources as well as services has greatly increased over the years. The Valley has a severely limited network for providing ES to meet the changing needs. Service conditions are deteriorating especially in the metropolis. Urban roads are in poor condition and are not maintained regularly. Solid waste management suffers due to disputes in the management of landfill site. The collection of garbage is not regular. There is an increase in the per capita waste generation. There is overcrowding at places where the poor work and live.

Water supply is inadequate. Some residential areas do not have services at all. The lack of services has caused the creation of slums. The quality of life is deteriorating. Urban environment is being polluted fast. Traffic management is very bad. There is energy crisis with heavy load shedding round the year and irregular supply of petroleum products. Air and water pollution are severe with health hazards.

4.2       Depletion of Environmental Resources

Environment in the Valley is deteriorating rapidly. With the loss of farmland and greenery, the problems of air pollution have increased, and solid waste management has become more problematic. Water resources have become inadequate. The access to fresh air, water, and open space has decreased. The need for ES has increased even more with the depletion of natural resources.

Solid waste is not collected regularly.

4.3       Increasing Cost of ES

With the depletion of environmental resources and poor managing for these, the cost of ES is increasing rapidly. In the rural context, people have more time and less opportunity cost. As a result, they take care of the management of services they need. While the change is inevitable and may be desirable, the services provided through other means have proved to be not only costly but also inadequate. The community action previously available is fast disappearing and the erstwhile viable techniques have been replaced by not necessarily better ones. In addition, there is an evidence of duplication in many cases that raises the overall cost and creates inconvenience to people all the more.

4.4       Environmental Problems due to Rapid Urbanization

The transition from rural to urban ways of living is generally accompanied by the repercussions of development. Adjustment to modern ways of life also involves extra costs. The failure to manage for the adaptation process dealing with such costs has led to unsustainable ways. Both the public and the private sector have become slow to prepare the people for the change. Instead of raising public awareness on sustainable ways, they promote unsustainable ways for short term financial gains. Most of the costs relate to the management of the wastes due to the adoption of modern techniques. Some of the problems due to rapid urbanization in the Valley are as follows:

• Settlements in sensitive areas like flood plains.
  • Premature loss of agricultural land.
  • Formation of slums with inadequate public health and sanitation conditions.
  • Problems of water supply and pollution.
  • Energy shortage, limited use of alternate energy and high prices for energy.
  • Mismatch between transportation and land use leading to severe traffic congestion and pollution.
  • Problems of solid waste management and dumping on riversides.

Traffic congestion

4.5       Deprivation

Although there has been a substantial increase in investments, problems have increased due to severe deficiency in ES. As the cost of services increased, most people became unable to pay for these. They are deprived of even the essential services. As such, they should be categorized as poor when judged from their access to sanitation, water, and other basic services. With more funding, costs of providing these have increased, but the quality of services could not be enhanced. Social affordability did not increase along with the increase in investment. People do not get what they want even if they are willing to pay. Moreover, the wages most people earn in the Valley are insufficient to get rid of their deprivation. What they earn is spent mainly on food. It is far from being sufficient to pay for ES. Although the contribution of the poor to the urban economy is significant, their income is not sufficient to pay for ES.

The failure to manage for ES in dense urban areas has led to what might be called collective poverty. Dirt roads, polluted rivers, garbage dumping in public places, and traffic congestion with air and noise pollution affect the entire population. However, poverty in the poorer locations is alarming; and the poor are most affected due to environmental deterioration.

4.6       Sprawl Growth and Commuting Problems

It is easier to provide services in a dense and compact area. This used to be the beauty in the design of the medieval towns. Sprawl growth has not only destroyed the valuable agricultural land but also made the provision of services costly and inadequate. The price of public transport is not affordable to many. Poor people walk long hours for work and for getting access to essential services.

4.7       Inadequate Policy Focus

Goods and services that are not socially affordable are encouraged to be produced as this serves the immediate interest of the government. This way the extent of financial benefits is more and the private interests are served more. Policy is not focused on dealing with urban poverty and environment.

5.   SOME OBSERVATIONS AND LESSONS

In the past, communities used to manage most of the services they need. With a concern for public welfare, the government started to provide services through the creation of parastatals. However, they are neither efficient nor interested in the social good. With decentralization, the role of the municipalities has increased over the years. Although there is a policy to mobilize the private sector, it is not attracted to invest in ES; as these involve financial risks and do not give immediate returns. There is no clear-cut demarcation among the role of different actors. Awareness at community level to choose between alternative ways of getting access to different services is critical in giving more viable options to the people.

There are various ways of providing different services. The viability of any mode of provision for a specific service may vary according to the size of the settlement. The level of urbanization across the Valley is varied. The capital city suffers most from acute shortage of essential services. Here people resort to different means of getting services but yet end up with inconvenience and heavy costs. It shows the conflict between traditional and modern approaches; the former being rapidly displaced by the latter. But this is not something that other parts of the Valley are taking after. Even here in the suburban parts and new development areas, there is the possibility of using traditional approaches. Moreover, the value of community-based approaches has increased as conventional ways have failed to meet people’s needs. They are at the same time becoming more unsustainable. The analysis of the transformation of the Valley shows that several factors have so far sustained its ecology and social system. It also shows that people and their culture played a positive role in its development.

The city of Bhaktapur has transformed itself using a community based self-reliant approach. It has fully used the potentials of traditional urbanism in harmony with the changing needs. There is little chance for Kathmandu metropolis to replicate these. The reason is huge government spending that promotes the use of modern goods and services. Besides, being the seat of the government, there are many more urban functions located here; and commuting costs are higher.

Lalitpur, the second city, has also been able to manage for ES with the revival of some of the traditional ways. Other municipalities, Kirtipur and Thimi, are also following these paths. In new development areas, there is a good potential for the people to produce ES with the use of traditional ways. However, the government helps the private sector to use capital intensive approaches as the main concern is the monetary return. The primary objective of the government is not to enhance the quality of environment as such.

People get urban services in different ways. Although the government is responsible, the provision of services has not improved the living conditions of the people.  According to one study, the investment made in environmental infrastructure by the public sector was far less compared to that made through land readjustment projects. (Joshi et. al. 2000). Despite huge investments in infrastructure, the needs of the people are not met. Nor has there been any increase in the physical assets that will help to meet the future needs.

Projects backed by community initiatives have found to be more successful. The government and the donors sometimes help such projects in the course of creating showpieces. But this may undermine indigenous efforts; and the community is made more dependent. Even for getting better and cheaper services from the formal sector, community strength matters. There is a strong link between service provision and local empowerment.

ES produced locally are of greater value in a smaller settlement compared to the same in the capital city. Although they can be produced in a much cheaper way, the competition with others is steep. These are more unlikely to be integrated with Valley level services due to conflict of interests.

With technological progress, erstwhile sustainable ways of living are likely to be affected. The incidence of change in technology is the mismatch between the people’s response and increased cost in using alternatives. Change in technology brings changes in life-style. The way things done in the past will disappear as new ways come up but they might not be more sustainable. Failure to adapt to changes may create problems. As an example, had we been able to continue the old practice of reusing and recycling the solid waste, the problem today would have been less severe. It is therefore necessary to align people with the process of technology change.

6.   SUSTAINABLE WAYS OF PROVIDING ES

It is unlikely that Kathmandu will develop as a modern city using conventional mode of service provision. For this, the cost of urban services should be made affordable to the people at large. However, this is not going to happen and in fact costs are increasing and people’s ability as well as willingness to pay is declining. Moreover, the quality of services does not depend on what the people pay for.

As conventional ways have proved to be not sufficient in the provision of ES in the Valley, traditional ways will also co-exist. It is necessary to develop these in a way to make them compatible with the changing needs. They should be made to complement with the conventional ones. The underlying principle of blending of the two should be combined sustainability. In this context, it should be recognized that modern changes though less sustainable are protected by the market and the government. It is necessary to develop and apply simple indicators to show that they are more sustainable before their adoption.

On the other hand, it is necessary to revive traditional ways with a view to make them more sustainable. This will help to increase the overall efficiency of service delivery; and make these more accessible and cheaper. Given the autonomy and right to choose between alternatives, people can be pursued to use more environment-friendly approaches; and their settlements can be developed in the form of more self-reliant communities. In order to ensure the viability of community produced services, these need to be integrated with the Valley level networks. With a view to promoting such an approach, the following should be considered.

6.1       Community Management

Community actions play a key role in the provision of ES. People should be involved in the process of producing goods and services they want. Services produced by the community are preferred also due to the fact that people will own them and maintain them with a sense of belonging.

Areas for intensive development need to be demarcated, and people should be allowed to play a key role in managing their ambience. There is a high degree of participation of the people in land readjustment projects. After the completion of such projects, community groups formed for land readjustment should be pursued to work to provide ES.

Smaller communities should be encouraged to produce and consume services.  These face external threats due to market distortion and the interest of the capital. People should be allowed to choose between alternatives. Community produce will continue to be viable if the environmental costs are duly taken care of. They should be compensated for helping the government to improve the environment. The comparative advantage of such an approach is due to the use of local resources as well as the local consumption of services. This allows for a huge saving in transport costs. They can be promoted through the adoption of standards, which people consider realistic and useful.

ES produced at the community level should be integrated with the Valley level service networks. Their integration is feasible as well as desirable. Threats are not difficult to be overcome as the service needs are not met by conventional approaches.

 Instead of revamping the old, it is necessary to transform settlements with the adaptation of new technologies. To this end, communities should be led to develop appropriate technology. The degree of involvement of the people in the management of ES is a good indicator of a sustainable city.

Traditional source of water supply still in use in Kathmandu

6.2       Urban Upgrading

            Improvement of environment through urban upgrading also means that buildings and settlements become more sustainable. As the overall replacement of the old settlements is not the goal, upgrading plays a key role in the transformation of cities with changing needs. Such measures should also aim at making traditional ways of service provision more sustainable.

6.3       New Development Areas

It is necessary to create urban centres where services can be more easily provided and maintained. As mentioned earlier, land readjustment projects have become successful to alleviate environmental problems in the Valley to a large extent. These sites have good potential to produce ES and hence to house more people. Appropriate techniques can be applied for the rapid densification of such areas. Provision of services locally in such areas will reduce the burden on city networks. These can even be developed as eco-towns.

In the context of rural urban linkage, the relevance of traditional ways that people used to manage their ambience in the past cannot be questioned. Urbanization in the Valley has been linked with agricultural system. This has made the provision of services easier as well as sustainable. New urban areas need to be developed while sustaining the ecological resources of the Valley. Efforts should be made to create dense villages to service the cultural and natural environment. Service provision should be linked with the need to develop the Valley as a single bio-region.

6.4       Standards

Viable traditional ways get replaced by new ones on the ground of not meeting officially set standards or the risks involved therein. In this regard, the relation between social affordability and the set standards should be understood; and the gap between the two should be narrowed down. Policies have encouraged the consumption of unsustainable goods and services. As a result, the quantity of demand for these has been increasing.

Affordability with respect to a society as a whole also means access to all.  This implies the ability to produce services to meet the needs of varied groups of people at affordable prices. There is a need for increasing awareness on realistic standards.

Although there is a strong force of modernization, changing into modern ways may be more difficult. People may not feel at ease with the substitutes. They were forced to abandon old ways without knowing where to land. There is confusion. This undermines the value of traditional ways, which are used when there is a shortage due to a breakdown of an infrastructure. Performance indicators to measure sustainability should focus on people’s satisfaction. People are rich but the city is poor. Land values are very high but service conditions are poor. It is necessary to check whether people are more comfortable; and whether they are willing to pay for better services. Those who pay are not served and those who benefit from the services do not have to pay. For instance, modern apartment buildings make use of the public services without paying.

It is necessary to adhere to sustainable ways; and more sustainable ways should be explored. Transformation should be guided by strategies towards sustainability.

7.   CONCLUSION

With urbanization, there is a rapid loss of natural resources in the Valley; and the cost of ES is increasing. As a result, it is becoming more difficult to provide ES like water, sanitation, and energy and so on. Given the primitiveness and inefficiency, conventional approaches alone will not be able to provide such services in a sustainable manner. In smaller settlements and towns, traditional ways are still relevant. However such approaches face increasing threats from modern ways of living. The government should promote these by helping communities to take a key role in the management of their environment.

ES should be managed for the sustainable development of the Valley. Through planned urbanization with the help of appropriate techniques like land readjustment, selected nodes at the urban fringe could be developed as dense villages where traditional ways can be revived. Such settlements can be identified and serviced in line with the concept of integrated development of the valley as a single region. In order to develop it as a single region, it is necessary to unite all its constituent parts. By providing sustainable transport system, it is possible to link urban centres in the fringe with the city center. Through the planned development of such areas, it is possible to sustain agriculture and greenery in the Valley. It is possible to prevent the premature loss of agricultural land; and the ecosystem of the valley can be maintained through such measures. This will help to retain the natural beauty and culture of the Valley. It is also necessary to maintain the river-system and mange the watershed areas. Through this approach, it becomes easier to provide necessary ES in order to make these available to the growing population. This will reduce the ecological footprints of the urban areas as well.  This will help to integrate conservation with the economic progress of the Valley.

As the conventional ways are more costly to the people, they should be encouraged to get engaged in community networks in the provision of services. The challenge lies on the integration of the traditional ways with the conventional ones. In this regard the conflict between the two should be understood. Due to primitiveness, changes to modern ways are resisted and some modern ways though inappropriate, replace traditional ones. The two models contrast sharply; but yet it is possible to get best out of them. In order to ensure the sustainability of more sustainable traditional approaches, it is necessary to assess different approaches in terms of their contribution to sustainability and sustainable development. This sort of exercise will also help to evolve appropriate modes of service provision.

It is necessary to inspire people to share their time and efforts in making their ambience more humane and livable. It is cheaper for them this way than to rely on the conventional ways. It is possible to transform rural areas into sustainable and vibrant urban centers. People should be made aware of their needs and the possibilities of meeting them in the best possible way. Let the people use their creativity, wisdom, and ingenuity to find solutions to their problems. Community action on high-density urban centers at selected places will help to keep the Valley green and growing in a sustainable way. This will help to evolve sustainable ways of service provision. Changes in technology should be used more for making improvements rather than for the total replacement.  Adaptation of viable alternatives based on eco-innovation will show more sustainable pathways. The best strategy is to use relevant indicators to measure the difference in order to be sure that the change is positive. It is possible to compare alternate ways of providing services using simple indicators.

REFERENCES

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Joshi, Jibgar. (1999). Housing and Urban Development in Nepal: analysis and design of participatory development process, (rev. ed.) Kathmandu: Lajmina Joshi

__________. (1998). “Managing Urbanization for Poverty Alleviation and Regional Development in Nepal” in Asian Cities and People, No. 31 (June 1998).

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__________. (2000). Planning for Sustainable Development: Urban Management in Nepal and South Asia, Kathmandu: Lajmina Joshi.

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__________. (1999). “Management of Physical Environment and Social Development in Kathmandu Valley”, paper presented at the 13^th Biennial Conference, ADIPA Bangkok.

__________. (1995). “The Use of Land Readjustment in the improvement of Urban Environment in Kathmandu Valley”, paper presented at the 8^th  International Seminar on Land Readjustment and Urban development, Nov. 7 – 9, Kobe, Japan.

Joshi, Jibgar. et. al. (2000). “Land readjustment Projects as a Tool for Financing Urban Infrastructure in Kathmandu Valley” A case study prepared for the Regional Seminar on Urban Infrastructure Finance, USAID, RUDO, Manila.

Joshi, Lajmina. (2001). “Understanding Development from Human and Ecological Perspectives: the management of bio-regional resources in Jha, P. K. et. al. (eds.). Environment and Agriculture: Biodiversity, Agriculture, and Pollution in South Asia. Kathmandu: Ecological Society (ECOS), pp.158 -162.

Ministry of Housing and Physical Planning (MHPP) (1996). “Report of the Task Force on Kathmandu Valley Development”, MHPP, Kathmandu.

MHPP/Halcrow Fox and Associates (1991) Kathmandu Valley Urban Development Plans and Programs, ADB/MHPP, Kathmandu.

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October 2009

Abstract

The paper explores the characteristics of an inclusive city. It tries to show the relationship of inclusiveness with what makes a city more sustainable. It highlights some of the problems of sustainable urban designs; and explores the potentials of an inclusive city in making development more sustainable. It also shows the ways of using the experience of some inclusive cities in the shaping of new urban centres and in the renewal of traditional towns.  Recognizing that the government has not been able to appreciate the role of cities in the pursuit of goals for sustainable development, the paper underscores the need for raising awareness; draws inferences from the way such cities respond to state actions; and examines the role of the government in making cities more inclusive. It finally drives at policy-making for the promotion of such cities.

Keywords: inclusive city, sustainability, potentials, policy-making.

1.         Introduction

A distinctive feature of ancient towns in Nepal is their social cohesiveness. In the past, there was no polarization; the rich and the poor were integrated within the social system. Their inclusiveness was due to the fact that they were intertwined with the prevailing ways of life. The purpose of this paper is to explore how the experience of such towns can be used to further develop the concept of inclusive city for ensuring sustainability.

People organize themselves to create a community; a neighbourhood. They share their joys and woes in it. They fulfil their needs through it. They participate in the community activities. They serve their community according to their interest and ability. All, irrespective of their age, sex, and creed, will work to create a better environment to work and live in. A city is composed of many neighbourhoods. We will have a sustainable city out of several inclusive communities.

2.The Concept of an Inclusive City

In an inclusive city, all the sections of the population will be engaged in activities they like. It is based on the principle of co-existence. It reduces conflicts and crime; and thus increases security. It allows for an extensive use of social networks. It increases self-reliance. It will make the urban economy resilient, as the outside influence is likely to be resisted. It is easier to promote a more sustainable production and consumption system in such a city, as the people are encouraged to own and manage resources directly. It helps to revert to activities that are more sustainable.

The concept is also related with entitlements that will enable all to get integrated with the urban economy as a whole. There should be opportunities for everyone to participate fully with access to a variety of quality jobs. An inclusive city should thus generate a wide range of entitlements. It should be able to manage disparity and provide opportunities for a varied group of individuals. Failure to manage for disparity will limit the ability of the people to make choices about how and where they live. This will lead to polarization and conflicts impairing the social connections that are vital for living a vibrant and thriving life.

Communities must be able to influence and manage the space and activities themselves. People should be encouraged to participate in finding out the real causes of a problem and potential solutions. This will create a feeling of ownership to projects among the users.

The goal is to energize and regenerate a community; and to create pleasing environments that add value to cities. They provide residents with opportunities and choices to thrive and reach their full potential.

3.         Elements of Sustainable Urban Design

Designs should create inclusive spaces, which contribute to the fulfilment of the needs of all types of people, and make places and programs accessible to all. Humans have a diverse range of needs and abilities. These can be shaped and changed greatly through the promotion of inclusive design. It manifests the vision of an inclusive city in physical terms. Successful designs enable people across the entire social range to participate in and receive value from actions. It helps to create space that provides a sense of place that people identify with where they want to live and work. They generate consciousness on the need for human stewardship of the earth.

Actions emerge from the needs, assets and culture of the communities and the environment in which they exist. Their success should be seen in terms of their contribution in meeting the needs of the users, such as health, education, and safety. There must be good transportation and communication. Access to goods and services should be ensured in order to make these available to all the inhabitants regardless of age, sex, religion, or income, or power. A successful project is one that manages its impact and externalities on the entire environment. It ensures that the result actually becomes a net positive. Community involvement in the project will enhance its capacity to accomplish more. Sustainable actions will provide the people with tools they need to manage or control their environment. For making such designs, it is necessary to formulate and implement strategies to avoid:

• Neighbourhoods with diverse qualities of life;
• Conflicts between the physical environment and cultural values and vision,
• Unequal access to education, health and jobs;
• Urban slums; and
• Environmental shortcomings such as lack of parks and open spaces, ugly landscapes, and polluted rivers.

The vitality of cities helps to make development more sustainable. It depends on the transformation of the culture, which is possible if their character and identity are not lost. Liveability depends on the ability to create an environment that depicts harmony between culture, built environment and nature. Every culture wants to retain its identity. If we fail to understand this, heritage sites will turn to problem areas with lost character. With the increase in the population and changes in values and aspirations, ecosystems change. There have always been resistances to changes. Sustainability of new changes depends on their compatibility with the existing culture.

The works done through external help may not add value to the local community to a significant level. It is not only fair but also cost effective to use the local community in the production, consumption, and in dealing with the impacts of their activities. The increasing cost of infrastructure and services under public undertakings also proves this point. External funding must provide a net gain to the community by creating new jobs and giving opportunities to spend earnings in the community itself. Cities must insist that new developments use local labour and skills. Training programs should be developed and run to raise awareness of community members.

4. Experience of Kathmandu Valley Towns

Culture is a major asset for towns and cities in Nepal. This is true in both crowded historic towns and isolated villages with people living in close harmony with nature. The Valley has numerous sites of great archaeological, historic and religious values. The major monuments are:

• Pagodas, temples, shrines and stupas,
• Ancient palaces, courtyards and statues,
• Historic towns with residential buildings, squares, lanes, stone water taps, backyards, bahals and bahis and
• Arts and paintings.

Its cultural charm is found in the form of diverse festivals around the year. The monuments are a part of the people’s daily life. Life is based on religious beliefs and sincerity to their tradition. The indigenous people have perpetuated the culture and helped the integration of their culture with the changing development trend. People’s daily life and the works of farmers, artisans, carpenters, painters and sculptors do represent living culture. The culture is reinforced by structure and settings; festivals, costumes, dances and music; ethnic diversity; religious philosophy and its practice; and legends and myths.

            From birth to death, special rites and celebrations mark the important events of one’s existence, assuming a symbiosis of body and soul with the divine. Festivals are expressions of life reflecting its joys and sorrows, and fears and dreams. They are interrelated and observed round the year. They are mysterious, colourful and full of fun. They have their roots and motives in the religion. They may reflect legendary belief and superstition and follow the seasons of crop harvesting. Some of the festivals are observed nationwide while some are unique to Kathmandu and some others are specific to a certain community, town or village.

            Historic cities should be looked as ecosystems. They are the product of the evolutionary process. They survived not because they are preserved. They survived enough to leave indelible marks on earth. Looking from the ecological perspective their sustainability can be understood against a variety of internal and external forces. It shows us how they can be managed in a sustainable manner. It is the local people along with their aspirations and energies, which can extend the life of their ecosystem with culture. Nepal’s experience in the conservation and upgrading of historical towns like Bhaktapur shows that it is necessary to:

• Integrate culture and development through planning. Instead of controlling new developments, these should be made compatible with heritage sites for cultural transformation. In the process, the character and identity associated with the heritage should be retained.
• Provide technological options to the people to make full use of the heritage sites.
• Understand social changes before making physical changes. It is much more difficult to live in the cultural history than to appreciate the value and beauty of it. With the modernization, people will be forced to make changes in their social life that may not be compatible with the cultural needs.
• Discourage modern development trends. Most of these might not be for the benefit of the people. In order to ascertain which modern changes are compatible or which elements can be well integrated, research on sustainable development becomes necessary. There is a lack of conservation techniques and knowledge. Cultural degeneration has taken place not because of ignorance, illiteracy and even poverty, but because of affluence and increase in economic opportunities due to commercialization. The lesson that can be learnt is that cities should not raise their standards just like that.
• Develop a culture of working with the people. It is not possible to work against the people.
• Encourage training and HRD activities and build capacity for inclusive designs.

• Emerging Problems and Issues

Nepal’s traditional towns are becoming less inclusive over time due to the failure to transform in line with the modern trends. There is an erosion of cultural and religious values.

Shift to unsustainable ways of living such as high-rise apartment building at places where there is acute shortage of services and chaotic transport system has threatened the urban life in many ways. The exposure of ancient towns to outside economies has not only made them less inclusive but also weakened their economy.

Cities face increasing and a diverse set of problems relating to different groups such as the youth, senior citizens, and the disabled ands so on. Their needs and problems are naturally different. As inclusiveness depends on the ability to avoid the exclusion of any group, awareness on population programs will help to enhance it. It is necessary to satisfy the needs of different age-groups of the population. The perspectives of different groups of people are different. ”For what most people see and often want in cities is not what planners, decision makers and elite groups see and want. It varies for children, for workers, for immigrants for people of different ages, incomes, occupations, and cultural backgrounds.” (Rodwin 1981, 13).

The movement of people from one place to another for various purposes is increasing due to relative ease in travelling.  More and more people migrate to bigger cities to fulfil their rising expectations. Such expectations are alluring. They look for better opportunities in a new place. However, they might end up with living in slums and abject poverty.

Due to population movement, family is disrupted; migrants fail to take their family members along with them. The chances that the expectations of the migrants will be met are decreasing.  Most cities in developing countries have failed to include them in a meaningful way. Many face disasters of various kinds as they migrate leaving their native place. Being not inclusive is the root cause of the problem; and we see conflicts, crimes, sexual abuses, girl trafficking etc. as its symptoms.

The place of origin will be affected due to the loss of its frontier group of people. It will be also impoverished due to transfer of some assets. On the other hand, at the place of destination, because the entitlements required for survival are different, their life will not be easy. It takes long time for them to be integrated in the new place. It will depend on the ability of the place to include them. Moving to a bigger city means many problems apart from the feeling of alienation. This makes it necessary to dig deeper as to what happens to the receiving space and the one that is losing population.  While there is the need to retain people in the place of origin, making it more inclusive, the capacity to absorb the migrants need to be enhanced at the place of destination. We should develop necessary skill and training programs as a means to create a new set of entitlements.

By trying to meet the needs of the people confined within a place and for a given time, we are not considering the effects of our efforts on other spaces and in the future. Our ability to satisfy the needs depends on how we use the space and resources over time. We should use the resources in relation to the needs of the population.

The value system of the past is being replaced by a new one. There is a preference to wealth, although the satisfaction derived from it is declining. In poorer communities, most of the necessities are accessed through community efforts and through mutual help. Market provides only a few of these to the poor. Although the market tried to replace such a system, the poor generally do not have adequate access to most of the things they need for their survival and progress. Poverty, in other words, makes the settlement more cohesive with interdependency among its members. The need to depend on the community decreases as the family income increases but this is not the solution as the family during the transition sacrifices most of the things it had been enjoying. It is not necessarily good for a society in transition to move to modern ways that are more conventional. Moreover, the failure to retain social networks with mutual help leads to the loss of inclusiveness in the society.

Some of the problems of urban designs in responding to the sustainability issues are change in the values; threats of modern ways; increasing discrimination, limited awareness etc.

6.         Making Cities More Inclusive and Sustainable

The concept of sustainable development has deep implications on our way of doing things, our behaviours, and values. It is necessary to evolve a process where all will be integrated. We need to ensure that the results of our development are distributed in a fair way. Policy framework is required to help making decisions with a view to balance social good with theright to develop. Each project must be checked against the following:

• Does it lead to form a real neighbourhood?
• Has the community been involved;
• Does it actually help to fulfil the community’s vision?
• Does it respect social and cultural preferences?
• Does it help to create a cohesive community?
• Is it environmentally sustainable?
• Will it allow all residents to make progress?

Population should be managed for creating sufficient entitlements for a diverse group of people residing in a geographical space that will enable them to survive and prosper. Most of the problems crop up due to lack of entitlements. As inclusiveness increases, the problem of entitlement ceases; they are correlated. To make it more inclusive, it is necessary to have special projects on entitlements for the excluded groups in any community. The following measures will help to make cities more inclusive:

• Encouraging local activities;
• Increasing awareness on community life;
• Providing key services locally;
• Engagement of the inhabitants in upgrading environment and social works;
• Investing in cultural and religious features;
• Pedestrianisation for sustainable mobility;
• Forming cooperatives in the neighbourhood; and
• Sustainable financing of infrastructure.

Inclusive designs should promote the access for all to space for diverse uses such as eating places and groceries at convenience, open space and parks, places for meditation, sports and recreation, etc. The city should be composed of safe neighbourhoods with a range of dwellings to accommodate diverse needs. Housing and building codes should focus more on health, safety and community quality of life.

There should be full access to quality education with choices. It should be realized that the physical condition of a school does have an impact on a child’s ability to learn.

In order to enhance access and mobility, viable public transit system should be developed. Cities can create incentives and promote policies that favour mass transit. Safe, functional and green connections will help to restore the public realm and make them more inclusive. Pedestrian streets will reactivate the public realm. These along with mixed land uses will help to reintegrate.

Heritage sites and well-maintained and usable open space are virtually the only urban places where people of different income level have equal access. Parks and open space are instrumental for improved air and water quality, for preserving rivers, and for city greening.  They provide community facilities and gathering spaces. Spaces and places are required to create and display social and cultural rituals that have meaning for all residents. Public events, such as street fairs and dramas, make neighbourhood life vibrant. Cities should provide space for grassroots and community organizations.

It is necessary to encourage the community-based initiatives and integrate these with the city level structures and networks. We should concentrate on making traditional towns more inclusive and provide necessary inputs there. We should also create new eco-towns.

As it is generally difficult to capture the changing needs of the changing population, flexible design should be adopted to accommodate the changing needs. In terms of form, culture and ways of life there should not be any compromise. It should be functional loved by its residents. It should adapt to the changes that are taking place.

The potentials of an inclusive city should be used in making development more sustainable. This can be done through the following measures:

• Emerging urban areas should be planned and developed as eco-towns where relatively rural characteristics and lower standards could prevail.
• Upgrading of old towns and settlements with a view to make them more inclusive is a sustainable strategy that needs to be pursued. The potentials of social network and the heritage can be used with the revival of indigenous activities.

There is a need for generating awareness and penalize those indulged in unsustainable patterns of development. Inclusive systems are more sustainable as these have less impact on the economy and are self-managed. Resources are not only used fully, but additional resources bound with the people are also made available. People being tied with their community are motivated to be happier as they have a purpose to make their place a better one and they are not allured to outside gold and glory.  Most of the services that are provided locally are likely to satisfy them more because they can be tailored to their needs. However, the policy is not strong to this end. The government itself is after short run returns in monetary terms.

The primary role of the government is to promote such cities. It should protect such cities from being affected by the outside influence. The local autonomy and self-reliance are critical to the sustainability of such cities. They should be encouraged to prepare and implement local agenda 21. They should be encouraged to provide infrastructure and services in a sustainable way.   State actions are shaped by the demands reflected in political terms by a community. In Nepal, they are not based on public welfare. Such cities adapt to what the state does. Most of the actions are not necessarily geared to enhance sustainability. This will threaten inclusiveness as well. The local conditions are generally ignored as the state has a standardized package. The experiences of such cities should shape state actions. Such actions need to be made promotional by playing a key role in localising Agenda 21. In specific terms, the government should:

• Help such cities to pursue sustainable ways of providing services
• Help facilitate autonomous development
• Grants and subsidy
• Protection from distortions
• Respect the local authority by not exploiting the services created by it

• Conclusion

The concept of an inclusive city is linked with a functioning and thriving community. An ideal society is the one where human needs are satisfied through the community efforts; and where they are inspired to add value to the community they belong to and they identify themselves with. Here the people live in harmony with their environment; and are less vulnerable to different types of risks. As they do not have to worry much to satisfy their own needs, they are enabled to contribute as much as they can. Their happiness depends on the services they are able to provide to their community. They find convenient environment to work. For emulating such a society, it is necessary to think of manageable communities. The answer can be found in the concept of an inclusive city. It should be designed to foster such communities in the form of eco-towns, eco villages or healthy cities. An inclusive city is a place where such a society thrives. It is inclusive also in the sense that whatever you contribute will add value to the social good. It is not like paying tax to a government which is busy in sustaining bad governance. For an inclusive design, we should therefore consider the way families in a community interact with each other. It should influence the process of their overall development and their engagement in different activities.

Although the historic towns of Kathmandu Valley are good examples of an inclusive city, there is an increasing threat. One can easily observe conflicts of interest between the global trend and the inherent primitive characteristics. Time and again, there had been attempts to impair their inherent characteristics for more than a century. Some of the factors that sustain their inclusiveness may be summarised as follows:

• Primitiveness with strong resistance to change;
• Cohesive and all-inclusive design;
• Encouragements for pedestrians;
• Culture of sharing poverty; and
• Sharing of urban space with opportunities for mixing together due to cultural and religious activities throughout the year.

Due to primitiveness and the persistent resistance to change, large scale investments with ability to destroy the inherent character of the settlements never thrived. However this had immense costs and the life of the common person had not bee an easy one. The role of the government must change and help the community actions to transpire their inclusiveness. It should understand that modern changes will be resisted in absence of adaptation measures; and any sort of conflict of interest will make development more costly and unsustainable. “The conflict between the improvement in the living standard of the people and preservation of cultural heritage should be sorted out through working with the people and through technologies that allow a greater integration between culture and development.”  (Joshi 2000, 26). The government has no other option than to work with the people; and on policies that will make living in these cities easier and more pleasing.

References:

Corbett, G. et. al., (1995), Kathmandu: seven studies in urban renewal, Winnipeg: University of Manitoba.

Haaland, A., (1985), Bhaktapur: A Town Changing, revised edition, Kathmandu: GTZ.

Hanson, J. (2004) “The inclusive city: delivering a more accessible urban environment through inclusive design’’, RICS Cobra 2004 International Construction Conference: responding to change, http; www.eprints.ucl.ac.uk/3351.

Joshi, J., (2008), Planning Approaches in Nepal, Kathmandu: Lajmina Joshi.

______., (2000), Planning for Sustainable Development: urban management in Nepal and South Asia, Kathmandu: Lajmina Joshi.

______., (2008), “Sustainable Provision of Urban Environmental Services in Kathmandu Valley”, unpublished paper presented at 2^nd ICBED, University Sains Malaysia.

Ministry of Population and Environment, (1999), Environmental Planning and Management of the Kathmandu Valley, Kathmandu: MoPE/IUCN.

Parajuli, Y. K., (1986), Bhaktapur Development Project: Experiences in Preservation and Restoration in a Medieval Town, Kathmandu: Bhaktapur Development Project.

Price, C and A. Tsouros, (eds.), Our Cities, Our Future: Policies and Action Plans for Health and Sustainable Development, Copenhagen: WHO Healthy City Project Office.

Rodwin, L., (1981). Cities and City Planning, New York/London: Plenum Press.

Safier, M., (1996), “The Cosmopolitan Challenge in Cities on the Edge of the Millennium: Moving from Conflict to Co-existence”, City, Oxford.

The Inclusive City, http: www.inclusivecity.com.

UN-HABITAT/UNEP, (2004), ALEX 2003: Environmentally Sustainable Urbanization, Meeting Report of the 2003 Global Meeting of the Sustainable Cities Programme (SCP) and the Localizing Agenda 21 Programme (LA21), Nairobi.

Through this book, Dr. Jibgar Joshi, a renowned scholar and professional with rich experience, offers among other things, a language and tools for talking cities and understanding the process of planning, forming and developing cities in the present context. I have known Jibgar for more than four decades. He has over the years kept himself engaged in active academic and professional exercise.
The book provides readers with a framework, which could be instrumental in getting the insight of all the parameters essential for building cities. Careful perusal of the book could convince readers that the narrative mentioned in the book, if translated professionally into actual practice, could result in the emergence of a city with capacity to remain inclusive, safe, and resilient. Nepalese have witnessed the ongoing unplanned growth of cities in the country and are struggling for getting basic services. Having read the book, I believe the readers would come across a valuable message for avoiding flaws and biases in urban development strategy. The book might reassure its readers about viability of cities which are livable and manageable in their own life time and in their own vicinity. Dr. Joshi’s strategy gets mapped impressively as he discusses in practical tone, integrated action planning and strategic planning. The writer takes special care in blending the concepts and practices of integrated planning, investment planning, and strategic planning in the context of realizing the vision of master plan for urban areas. In a display of pragmatism, he lays emphasis on flexibility in allowing the implementation-dynamics of the process and actors attached to the key elements – planning, integration, and investment – to take their due course prudently.
The book is responsive to climate change issues and advocates the use of clean energy. The latest move for saving environment for future expressed in vocabulary of various sorts – green revolution, respect to natural resources in the heat of development drive, saving mother earth, back to nature, safe earth, and development not at the cost of environment – also features in the book in a prominent way. He refers to the years of dedicated contribution that communities made in developing and preserving common public spaces and pinpoints the current pressure on them because of the growing needs of present day economic growth. He voices for their continued accessibility to all people irrespective of their income level. The doctrine he advocates is a complex of concepts and practices. It includes, among others, respect for and appreciation of relevance and importance of common spaces, skill to maintain their continuity under any excuse, open heart for integrating them with development, and innovations to use them in an enhanced manner. It is to be implemented with people’s participation accompanied by schemes for sustainability.
The readers may have a better feeling of, after they have a comprehensive tour of urban planning through different perspectives which adorn the book, the mess in cities, confusion in role of actors, haze in vision, and drifting policies reflected in the latest state of city-building in the country. The author has stressed on infrastructure sketching the conflict currently being felt in growing demand for and inadequate supply of basic services such as drinking water, sanitation, energy, transport and communication in cities. Therein he finds an appropriate role for engineers and planners and also a challenge for them: building infrastructure with apt design and with proper use of land focusing on sustainability and ICT. Arguing that “it is possible to transform rural areas into sustainable and vibrant urban centers”, the author mentions: “people should be made aware of their needs and the possibilities of meeting them in the best possible way. Let the people use their creativity, wisdom, and ingenuity to find solutions to their problems.” The book will urge building province-specific and region-specific cities in Nepal providing guidance to provincial leadership. Take-away from the book in this regard is clear: a working urban system could strengthen provincial economies which would then enable the country to realize prosperity at the national level.
The book is interesting to read and facilitates understanding of issues related to core dimensions of urban planning and its parameters and linkages. Dr. Joshi has taken special care to avoid planners’ and engineers’ jargon and scholarly show-off for focusing on communicating his message to common Nepalese who take interest in development matters particularly in the way cities are built or managed. The positive and constructive tone that readers find in various pages of the book should be appreciated for it helps to move on remedying errors of the past. A rich bibliography and appropriate attributions wherever needed exhibit the writer’s keen sense of research and professional authenticity. It is because of these qualities that the book could be termed – a must read book – for those interested in development and cities. I commend it. It will, besides providing readers with updated way of looking at city development and planning, facilitate the decision makers, planners and builders to refresh their thinking and construction-practices about city and development matters.
Rama Krishna Regmee
Senior Journalist an Prof. Kantipur City College
Putalisadak, Kathmandu.

1.              Introduction and Overview

The pace of urbanization, estimated to be four percent per annum, is highest in Nepal among the countries of South Asia[. This has led to economic growth. The contribution of the urban sector to GDP is increasing fast. Cities compete in attracting investments, however, they are suffering from an acute shortage of infrastructure and services. This has made it difficult to sustain growth, and made cities less competitive resulting in increasing exclusion that manifests itself as increased slum areas. Adjustments take place to sustain competitiveness at the cost of inclusiveness such as access to basic services.

The perspectives on cities have changed over the years. First, cities were considered to be exploitative. The exploitative role of Kathmandu is evident from the fact that most of the foreign investments made in Nepal are captured by Kathmandu. Kathmandu also sets market rates for goods produced nationally favorable to the Kathmandu economy. The generative role of Kathmandu has remained limited due to the influence of the Indian economy [As a result, Kathmandu has not been able to help develop other regions. The services it provides are less affordable compared to what the Indian cities provide. Its generative role did not improve even when the two nations had bitter relations during the late 1980s. Kathmandu needs to create a productive connectivity with the outlying areas of the Kathmandu Valley region. This is a precondition for enhancing its sustainability. Understanding of cities’ distributive role in terms of their relationship with the outlying regions, the way cities appropriate resources and the global economy will help to resolve the issue of equity in sharing the advantages of global collaboration on the global commons.

Urbanization should be based on the judicious and equitable extraction of resources from the outlying regions to create employment and improved social opportunities. The distributive role can be enhanced through providing services broadly, including the population of the associated regions through sustainable transport networks; systematic integration of migrants into the urban economy; regulating access to outside entrepreneurs and investments with cost recovery in environmental services for their sustainable provision. The distributive role of Kathmandu has an immense, potential capacity to absorb population due to its inclusive nature supported by traditional social networks and the traditional culture of sharing poverty. The Kathmandu region is highly competitive with economic drivers such as tourism and handicraft; equipment & machinery; textile, garment & leather; financial intermediary; wholesale & trade; health & social works; government function; and household sector.

Due to globalization and environmental concerns, the distributive role of cities has increased during the recent past. Cities can create enormous wealth at the cost of natural resources of the larger areas outside its boundary. At the same time land values are increasing. Balanced development ensuring inclusiveness of the population of the larger rural urban areas becomes possible only when we enhance the distributive role of the major cities. This spatial dimension of inclusiveness is generally overlooked. The cities’ ability to absorb migrants consistently and sustainably is a prerequisite for inclusive urban development.

Cities can become less inclusive due to increasing income and outside competition especially regarding the purchasing power of the weaker economic sector relating to urban services. An increase in income can create more demand for infrastructure and services. However, there is a growing disparity in access and service levels of basic services as most people have limited access to high standard infrastructure. In poor and smaller cities, where sharing poverty and traditional culture prevail, people have a tendency to unite to provide themselves with necessary urban services. Sharing poverty here means more equitable access to urban goods and services in community spirit, even when the total supply is severely limited.

In this context, it is necessary to understand what went wrong during the transformation of Nepal or Kathmandu to the present economic set up. In Kathmandu there is a marked increase in exclusion as modern standards are being introduced. This was not the case earlier.. Inclusive strategies can not only reduce exclusion but make it possible to avail most services to a broader set of beneficiaries in an affordable way.

Economic growth in Nepal is spatially differentiated with its high correlation with urbanization in different parts of the country. Nepal has been under political transition for more than a decade that has stimulated migration to cities. Yet, there is economic stagnation, with the rate of economic growth below 4% per annum over the last two decades. Urbanization is easily understood and accepted as an inevitable process. However, where the increasing population will be located in the future is not easy to predict. This will depend on economic opportunities that are created through the location of investments in infrastructure and industry as well as policies on trade and transit. Investments, not necessarily in Kathmandu, but in areas with greater growth potential and higher multiplier effects will yield greater return in the long run. Such investments will make urban development more effective and inclusive.

This paper is organized in six parts. Part I is an introduction to urbanization in Nepal. Part II provides an in-depth analysis of the trend of urbanization in Nepal and explains its economic causes and impacts. It discusses spatial, demographic, and economic implications of urbanization. Part III identifies different perspectives and roles of cities. It highlights cities increasing distributive roles and the need to integrate their peripheral areas as well as ensuring equitable access to urban services. Part IV makes an economic analysis of key urban regions including the Kathmandu Valley. It shows how the inclusive nature of its development has contributed to cluster development[. It also deals with the emerging threat to inclusiveness due to increasing deficiency in urban infrastructure. Part V deals with the ways and means of providing infrastructure in a more productive, affordable and inclusive manner. It also shows that planned urbanization of the peripheral regions will enhance inclusiveness. This is followed by a discussion on institutions and fiscal sustainability. The Part VI is a conclusion summarizing the main findings.

2.              Urbanization

Nepal is the fastest urbanizing country in South Asia. The urban sector contributes two thirds of the national GDP. The national spatial transformation is characterized by a fast growing population and increased density in the Kathmandu Valley with a clustering of economic activities in the Eastern and Central Terai as well as the Western Hills. Nepal’s urbanization, although a recent phenomenon, has been influenced by different factors at different times. There have been frequent changes in policy focus most notably in the priority accorded to spatial integration. The trend of urbanization is presented in Table 1 below.

Year	Total pop. (Millions)	No. of  municipalities	Urban pop. (‘000)	Level of urbanization (%)
1961	9.4	16	339	3.6
1971	11.6	16	462	4
1981	15.2	23	962	6.3
1991	18.1	33	1,629	9
2001	23.2	58	3,228	13.9
2011	26.5	58	4,524	17.1

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The levels of urbanization given above are based on the official classification of municipalities. There are urbanized areas in village development committees and rural areas in the municipalities. This makes it difficult to rationalize the analysis of urbanization in Nepal. For instance the level of urbanization at present considering 58 municipalities is 17.1%. This will increase to about 20% if we include the proposed new 41 municipalities. The definition of an urban area is a designated municipality and emerging towns.

Figure 1: Map of Nepal showing municipalities and their population in 2011

Table 2 lists the municipalities with either a population of more than 40,000 or density higher than 20 persons per ha. There were 30 municipalities with populations greater than 40,000 in 2011. There are only 14 municipalities with a density greater than 20 persons per ha. There are only 11 municipalities with a density greater than 20 persons per ha and population more than 40,000. Out of these, five are in Kathmandu Valley. The six outside the Valley are Birgunj, Nepalgunj, Pokhara, Janakpur, Biratnagar and Kalaiya. The greatest economic consequence of such a classification of municipalities is that within the declared municipal area, agriculture is not considered an urban function. Therefore land is more exposed to pressure to urbanize usually without the ability to satisfy the demands for adequate services necessary to support its ability to contribute to economic growth. Despite urbanization, rural features persist in most of the municipalities. Infilling in such areas with urban uses leads to fragmentation of agricultural land with increased loss of farmland without their conversion to planned urban areas. This creates more problems in the placing of urban infrastructure in the future.

Table 2: Municipalities with population > 40,000 or density > 20 persons per ha. (2011)

No	Municipality	Density (Persons/ ha.)	Population
1	Kathmandu	203.6	975,453
2	Lalitpur	147.4	230,050
3	Bhaktapur	127.9	81,748
4	Madhyapur	75.9	83,036
5	Birgunj	65.5	135,904
6	Nepalgunj	59.0	72,503
7	Banepa	44.8	24,764
8	Pokhara	48.1	255,465
9	Kirtipur	45.6	65,602
10	Janakpur	40.5	97,776
11	Biratnagar	34.6	201,125
12	Rajbiraj	33.2	37,738
13	Malangwa	26.8	25,102
14	Kalaiya	23.1	42,876
15	Bharatpur		143,836
16	Dharan		116,181
17	Butwal		118,462
18	Dhangadhi		101,970
19	Bhimdatta		104,599
20	Hetauda		84,671
21	Damak		75,102
22	Itahari		74,501
23	Triyuga		70,000
24	Ghorahi		62,928
25	Siddharthanagar		63,483
26	Tulsipur		51,537
27	Birendranagar		47,914
28	Lekhnath		58,816
29	Mechinagar		57,545
30	Gulariya		55,747
31	Tikapur		56,127
32	Ratnanagar		46,367
33	Byas		42,899
	Total		3,761,827

There used to be a policy to discourage development of towns at the Nepal – India border in favor of foothill towns during the 1980s. This caused border towns to stagnate. Instead, the foothill towns prospered due to investment in road connectivity and government policy. As a result of the East-West Highway, foothill towns grew and still continued to grow. There has also been an attempt to develop north-south urban corridors. However, the economic forces that resulted from development of the East-West Highway have established linkages between settlements in the east west direction that provided economic opportunities for the migrants from the hill areas.

Forming cluster economies that enhance the ability to create jobs is central to urbanization. However, “natural resource endowments do not provide a satisfactory explanation for concentration.” (Joshi 1985: 57) With the growth of productive activities, Kathmandu has become crowded, beyond its infrastructure capacity. After a certain stage of agglomeration, there can be economic growth with clusters of mutually supportive economic activities. The emerging economy can gain the economic power to legitimize a growing disparity in access to basic services unless there is an explicit policy that promotes access to services. Institutional development and market forces can sustain investment in cluster development with the support of the government. However market forces may not be either desirable when viewed from the perspective of being environment-friendly nor promote social inclusiveness in terms of service delivery Growing disparity of access to and acute deficiency in infrastructure are thus the key adverse impacts of urbanization. The emerging threat to long-time inclusiveness within Kathmandu needs to be addressed through deconcentration of activities from Kathmandu to other potential urban regions.

Nepal is divided into five development regions, each with three eco-regions (mountain, hills and terai) making a total of 15 sub-regions also known as planning regions. (Joshi 2009) The regional distribution of population and urban population in 2011 are presented in Table 3 and Table 4. The total population of the mountain region has increased to 1.8 million accounting for little more than 6% of the total population of the country. The area of Nepal is 51,817 sq. km. It is sparsely populated with 34.3 persons per sq. km. Although the mountain regions have resources, they are not ideal places for human settlements. However, people may go there for recreation or harnessing resources, since they are endowed with bio-resources with good potential for eco-tourism.

Table 3: Regional Distribution of Population 2011

Region	Mtn.	Hill	Terai	Total
Far Western	463,345	862,215	1,226,957	2,552,517
Mid-Western	388,713	1,687,497	1,470,472	3,546,682
Western	19,990	2,811,135	2,095,640	4,926,765
Central	517,655	4,431,813	4,707,517	9,656,985
Eastern	392,089	1,601,347	3,818,119	5,811,555
Total	1,781,792	11,394,007	13,318,705	26,494,504

Table 4: Regional Distribution of Urban Population 2011

Region	Mtn.	Hill	Terai	Total
Far Western	0	66,176	267,696	333,872
Mid-Western	0	74,132	248,342	322,4744
Western	0	519,430	245,411	764,841
Central	23,337	1,689,176	560,313	2,272,826
Eastern	26,658	119,196	683,953	829,807
Total	49,995	2,468,110	2,005,715	7,426,090

The share of urbanization in all the regions except the central hill and terai areas, and eastern and mid-western terai has decreased during the period 2001 – 2011. This is evident from Table 5 and Table 6.

Table 5: Regional Distribution of Urban Population 2011 in percentage

Region	Mtn.	Hill	Terai	Total
Far Western	0	!Syntax Error, 2588701.46	5.71	7.38
Mid-Western	0	1.864	5.49	7.13
Western	0	11.48	5.42	16.91
Central	0.52	37.34	12.38	50.244
Eastern	0.59	2.623	15.12	18.34
Total	1.11	54.56	44.12	99.79

Table 6: Regional Distribution of Urban Population 2001 in percentage

Region	Mtn.	Hill	Terai	Total
Far Western	0	1.82	5.79	7.61
Mid-Western	0	1.57	5.60	7.17
Western	0	10.63	5.50	16.13
Central	0.68	36.30	12.76	49.74
Eastern	0.68	2.85	15.82	19.35
Total	1.36	53.17	45.47	100.00

The share of the urban population in the Central Hill area has increased from 36.3% to 37.5%. This shows the rising primacy of the Kathmandu Valley towns. Despite the policy of deemphasizing the development of Kathmandu, it emerged as a growth pole in the SAARC Region even as early as 1990. (Joshi 1997) After that, concentration continued unabated mainly due to the political transitions that Nepal is still going through. Kathmandu has severe deficits in infrastructure. However, it has succeeded in changing its comparative advantages into competitive advantages based on clusters of economic activities; for example tourism related activities. Because of this, its population is increasing at a faster rate. Its potential to create jobs is already established. Economic activities flourished due to the rise of industry clusters and reduction in business transaction costs.

Inter-regional disparity can be reduced when we have clusters in different regions in a balanced way. Intra-regional and city level disparity will be reduced through cluster development that promotes mixed land use. What Hirschman wrote in 1958 is relevant: “There can be little doubt that an economy to lift itself to higher income levels, must and will first develop within itself one or several regional centers of economic strength. The need for the emergence of ‘growth points’ or ‘growth poles’ in the course of the development process means that international and interregional inequality of growth is an inevitable concomitant and condition of growth itself” Now we have to deal with clusters based on collaborative advantages to avoid and minimize the exploitation aspects embodied in the concept of “growth poles/points”. Clusters are potentially positive aspects of the Nepalese economy especially strategically located across the nation to benefit from the comparative advantage each possesses. However, there is no correlation between national or local investment and spatial policies. And investments continue to flow into the central region unabated.

The role of India as an important actor in shaping the Nepalese market cannot be understated. The general perception among planners is that urban development will decline as one moves away from the Nepal-India border. The future of border towns largely depends on what India will do. As it is difficult to predict the Indian response to border development, so it is difficult to predict urbanization trends of Nepal’s border towns in terms of their role in the national economy. The border towns developed when the Indian economy had functional linkages with them since they supplied raw materials. But the Nepali government did not want that sort of dependency on India so policy and investment was oriented towards foothill towns. Now, when relations improved, India was not interested in taking border towns along with it resulting in estrangement and declining economies. For a city like Biratnagar, the estimated annual increase of 4,000 people can be absorbed at a very low standard as squatters on the ample available land being converted to urban areas. The issue is how Biratnagar can better manage the process so that communities can be incrementally improved.

Bilateral relations are not based on regional economic efficiency. Collaborative efforts are not significant. Different parts of the country are urbanizing in different ways. It is necessary to identify the drivers of urbanization in different urbanized regions. Further urbanization in some of the urbanized areas such as Biratnagar and Birgunj can be induced only through the creation of employment opportunities. On the contrary, some foothill towns, though less urbanized presently, will urbanize more rapidly as they have a potential to create jobs. Nepal’s experience has shown that it is not easy to implement neither regional development strategies of the 1970s nor the more recent concept of urban economic regions. The development of a growth corridor will depend on the economic linkages between economic centers in the corridor. Linkages, however, are not the case. Cities with less population are growing faster on their own. For instance, Itahari is growing more rapidly compared to Biratnagar. It is necessary to link Itahari with Biratnagar but Biratnagar’s outreach is not visible. The case of Nepalgunj is no better.

The level of urbanization in all the mountain regions, and mid western and far western development regions is low. Their GDP’s are also low. These regions represent isolated economies not integrated with the national economy. It is necessary to reach these rural regions through the creation of small centers that will help build linkages in the future by bringing their products to the market economy. Their products seldom are duly paid for. These regions not only require the provision of basic services but also markets and demand for their products. For such regions, linkage centers are recommended, which will help them to urbanize in a planned way. We may recommend policies for urbanizing rural regions; but it will be difficult to implement them as it is not likely that such policies can be backed by sufficient investments. Instead of thinking about remote regions, the policy of deliberate urbanization should accord priority to peri-urban areas first, that will harness rural-urban linkage potentials for the inclusive development of the region as a whole. It makes little sense in trying to form corridors out of isolated economies when the urbanization of the rural regions surrounding a city is being ignored.

Integration of peripheral areas with the concept of growing city regions can help to harness the potentials of urbanization, support inclusiveness and make local economies stronger. Corridors, especially when they are too long, are more difficult to maintain as viable economic entities compared to extended city regions and their peripheries. This shows that city regions should be supported to grow to make the corridors function well. It is not the competitiveness of an individual city but the degree of collaborative efforts among cities in proximity that increases the regional and national competitiveness.

The more urbanized regions of the country are Central Hills (Kathmandu region) and Central Terai with Kathmandu – Hetauda – Bharatpur – Birgunj – Janakpur as the potential corridor and the Eastern Terai with Biratnagar – Itahari – Dharan as the potential corridor. Similarly, Western Terai and Western Hill are other urbanized regions with Bhairahawa – Butwal – Pokhara as the potential corridor. These five regions accounted for 76.8% of the urban population in 2011. This figure was 75.8% in 2001. If the proposed 41 municipalities are also considered, the figure will still increase.

Figure 2: Map of Nepal Showing City Regions and Economic Corridors

People have limited choices and options. This author considers that the disparity is increasing and that there is low efficiency in government spending. This means other urban regions although presumed to function as economic centers do not get the necessary investment.

Economic transformation of the nation has been slow as it has failed to create cities that attract industries and investments. Kathmandu’s economy is presently growing fast. However, failure to consider infrastructure as an input to its productive sectors will make it difficult to sustain the growth. The growth of high-rise apartment buildings without due consideration to the provision of off-site infrastructure and their environmental impacts have aggravated the problem of transport and other services. The low competitiveness of cities has caused stagnation. There is a tendency for sectors as well as cities to compete among themselves instead of engaging in collaborative efforts and functional specialization. Inclusive cities are likely to be more competitive because cities with high number of low-skilled, poorly educated, marginalized populations are at a competitive disadvantage and problems of squalor, poverty, pollution and communicable diseases deter private investment and economic expansion. Inclusiveness should be enhanced through collaboration among sectors, people, and spaces.

The corridor formed by the foothill towns requires investment. On the other hand, the north south corridor will help to widen the east west corridor. If connectivity is the key concern, the junctions of north-south and east-west roads will be the focus of city regions in general terms. Expansion of city regions and widening of corridors joining city regions will help to enhance the competitiveness of cities.

Despite its strategic location and potentials, Biratnagar is stagnating at present and the impact of Kathmandu’s economic activities is little. However Biratnagar is identified as a major regional economic center. Its economy is planned to be transformed with the implementation of projects like the expansion of the airport, ring road construction, a Special Economic Zone, a dry port, and an Integrated Check Point and Railway, among others. It is likely to have a boost up in the public sector as well. Trans-boundary collaborative efforts will help to unlock its potentials.

1.              Inclusiveness

A distinctive feature of ancient towns in Nepal is their social cohesiveness. In the past, there was little economic segregation; the rich and the poor were integrated within the spatial and social systems. Their inclusiveness was due to the fact that they were intertwined with the prevailing ways of life. The experience of such towns is relevant to any city in the world and can be used to enhance their inclusiveness.

There is an increased threat to inclusiveness due to the breakdown of traditional relationships such as the extended family and clan relations. The key question is: How can the threat to inclusiveness be avoided without not having to sacrifice modern development? How are policies developed and implemented in an inclusive manner so that the benefits of economic growth of our cities meet the needs of the majority of the population. The concept of the inclusive city is linked with sustainability. The best way to deal with this issue is to make investments that include pro-poor activities to mobilizing the poor. If policies channel the supportive investments towards this end, the conventional ways of providing infrastructure and services can be revised and avoid the spiraling price escalation of infrastructure and services in poor cities. Preparing inclusive, commercially viable projects may improve Nepal’s limited access to the global economy.

People can organize themselves to create a community; a neighborhood. They share their joys and woes in it. They fulfill their needs through it. They participate in the community activities. They serve their community according to their interest and ability. All, irrespective of their age, sex, and creed, can work to create a better environment to work and live in. A city is composed of many neighborhoods. A sustainable city can be built out of its inclusive communities.

Inclusiveness can energize and regenerate a community; and help create pleasing environments that add value to cities. Cities can provide residents with opportunities and choices not only to survive but also to reach their full potential. Employment is key to improvements in the quality of life and access to urban services and amenities. The local economy should be able to manage disparity and provide opportunities for its citizens.

Nepal’s traditional towns are becoming less inclusive over time as they modernize. There is an erosion of cultural and religious values as well as a shift to unsustainable ways of living such as high-rise apartment building at places where there is acute shortage of employment, services and chaotic transport systems that have threatened urban life in many ways. Inappropriate location of high rise building has resulted in unsustainable living. Such developments are largely underutilized despite the government’s support. To combat the problem of sprawling, intensive development in selected nodes through land pooling projects preferably with high-rise apartments within it should be promoted. Currently, the exposure of ancient towns to outside economies has not only made them less inclusive but also weakened their economy. However, if carried out through sustainable, inclusive policies that need not be the case for the opportunities created in tourism, value-added small business development and industry compatible to the historic context.

Cities face increasing and diverse sets of problems relating to different groups such as the youth, senior citizens, and disabled people and so on. Their needs and problems are naturally different. As inclusiveness depends on the ability to avoid the exclusion of any group, awareness on population programs will help to enhance it. The need for a current information base is crucial to sound urban management. It is necessary to satisfy the needs of different age-groups of the population. Nepal needs to create policies and programs that reflect the perspectives of different groups of people. “For what most people see and often want in cities is not what planners, decision makers and elite groups see and want. It varies for children, for workers, for immigrants for people of different ages, incomes, occupations, and cultural backgrounds.” (Rodwin 1981: 13)

The movement of people from one place to another for various purposes is increasing and facilitated by the relative ease of travel. Internal migration may impact the place of origin due to the loss of its economically active group of people and the transfer of assets. While opportunities to work abroad and send remittances back are increasing, it also has a price to pay in terms of the family and the conditions in which foreign labor lives. While there is the need to expand opportunities in the place of origin, making it more inclusive, the capacity of cities to absorb migrants and the natural increase of current residents needs to be enhanced. Skill development and training programs are to be encouraged. It takes time for new immigrants to be integrated into a new place. This makes it necessary to dig deeper as to what happens to the receiving space and the space that is losing population. 

Kathmandu Valley has numerous sites of great archaeological, historic and religious values. Culture is a major asset in both crowded historic towns and isolated villages with people living in close harmony with nature. Their cultural charm is found in the form of diverse festivals around the year. The monuments are a part of the people’s daily life. Indigenous people can perpetuate their culture and help integrate their culture into their changing cultural and built environment.. The local people along with their aspirations and energies extend the life of their ecosystem with culture. On one hand, it is necessary to transform the traditional ways making them more sustainable. On the other hand, it is necessary to adapt sustainable modern alternatives to local conditions. Such measures will help to find sustainable ways of providing services and ensure sustainability of building and urban design. In order to enhance access and mobility, viable public transit system should be developed. Safe, functional and green connections will help to restore the public realm and make them more inclusive.

Heritage sites and well-maintained and usable open space are virtually the only urban places where people of different income level have equal access. Although the historic towns of Kathmandu Valley are good examples of an inclusive cities, there is an increasing threat. Some of the factors that sustain their inclusiveness may be summarized as follows:

• Traditions with strong resistance to change;
• Cohesive and all-inclusive design;
• Encouragements for pedestrians;
• Culture of sharing poverty;
• Sharing of urban space with opportunities for mixing together due to cultural and religious activities throughout the year; and
• Changes with ability to destroy the inherent character of the settlements have so far not thrived.

The role of the government must change from a doer to a facilitator and support the community to develop their inclusiveness. It should understand that modern changes will be resisted in the absence of adaptation measures; and all sorts of conflicts of interest will make development more costly and unsustainable.

2.              City Clusters and Inclusiveness     

Clusters can be either spontaneously induced or be planned development. They may emerge as a result of investments in infrastructure, a government decision, a new technology, the existence of research and development (R&D) centers and universities, or a chance happening. Early commercial success leads to the entry of other players keen to be part of the successful actions. Nothing succeeds like success. When municipalities become productive, others will extend their hands for increasing the competitiveness of the cities. A successful cluster can keep on increasing, as revenue streams finance more commercial activities and infrastructure. For instance, the cluster economy of Kathmandu has been developed in partnership with government. It represents an impressive body of knowledge that can be used very effectively to stimulate and support local economic development. Cluster initiatives are generally aimed at nurturing collaborative instincts and trust, and building a critical mass of relevant companies to achieve better outcomes than would otherwise be possible.

Kathmandu characterizes the emergence and evolution of functional clusters. The birth of a cluster can often be traced to historical cultural sites and the availability of raw materials, specific knowledge in R&D organizations, or traditional know-how; the specific or sophisticated needs of a group of geographically concentrated customers or companies; or the location of companies or entrepreneurs carrying out some important new technological innovations. The first stage in cluster development may involve new company spin-offs, leading to a geographic concentration of other competitor companies at a similar stage of development. Once a critical agglomeration of firms has been established, external economies are created in a cumulative process. The first indication of emerging external economies is the creation of a set of specialized suppliers and service companies. The growing exclusiveness can have adverse impacts on its economy.

The growth of the cluster often creates a demand for nonmarket services and the formation of new organizations that serve several companies in the growing cluster. The development of external economies increases the visibility, prestige, and attractiveness of the cluster, but, in the case of Kathmandu, signs of diseconomies in a sector-wise way are already visible. It has become necessary to relocate some of the activities to the outlying areas. A byproduct of relocation is the provision of infrastructure that supports new urban growth and economic development. This investment can also help alleviate poverty. Competition between various industries can bid up prices of materials and factors of production — land, labor, and capital. The labor supply is affected due to strong labor unions. Services and amenities become more costly due to over congestion so that more taxes are imposed. (Joshi 1985: 56) However, clusters can be remarkably resilient as long as businesses and governments cooperate to rejuvenate and transform the cluster. Cities become more competitive as they learn to share infrastructure and public services; access to natural resources; and skills and social capital. To appreciate the development potential of city clusters, it is important to go beyond the size of cities (as measured by population) and consider their relative economic function, power, and influence in national, urban, and regional development.

Rural-urban linkages should be utilized to make the whole region more competitive. For example, competition between industries bid up the prices of capital and labor in Kathmandu. It becomes necessary to think at scale and develop the region as a whole based on synergy. The comparative advantage of the core depends on its access to the resources of the region as a whole. Its market can be defined by the purchasing power of the region as a whole. The growth of Kathmandu region has not helped the rest of the country. It is the receiver of raw materials. It does not foster the development of lead sectors in the economy with high multiplier effects and high forward and backward linkages. The forward linkage of tourism for instance could be limited to better relations with other countries that may not lead to more investments. The backward linkage is substantial as it will urge more investments in infrastructure. However, if these could have been used by other business and household sectors it would have been better.

With regards to the rapidly urbanizing areas, it is necessary now to realize that the concept of growth corridors is not the efficient option. To make this self-financing, it is necessary to create city regions at different points of the corridor. By increasing the area of the city region, it may become possible to finance corridor development. An economic base and its resilience can be enhanced through the development of agro-processing industries and the development of export zones in border towns; which requires developing towns in the corridor as city regions with the integration of their surrounding rural areas. Agro-processing industries in city regions will help enhance livelihood opportunities in the rural regions and more people can be retained there. Cities in the terai can export their agri-products to the hills and can provide processing and packaging services for the hill raw products. Similarly trekking and eco-tourism will generate some income in the rural areas. Handicrafts are another potential sector for enhancing competitiveness. Potentially urbanized areas like Pokhara should focus on strengthening and expanding the city region. It is a fast growing important economic center with the potential to reinforce the Bhairahawa – Butwal – Pokhara corridor. Otherwise, the national urban policy to create urban economic regions will be as futile as creating regional development centers in the 1970s.

Inclusiveness helps to harness comparative advantages to make cities competitive. Nepal has the comparative advantage in terms of hydro-power, but it has not been able to utilize it, and power shortage is the major bottleneck for industrial transformation. Different factors that determine the competitiveness of cities are related with the demands of the global economy and are hence tied up with the integration of Nepal’s economy with the same. Enabling markets towards universal access to services with a view to minimizing the evils of urbanization should be the goal.

3.              Infrastructure and Inclusive Service Delivery

The failure to manage urbanization in dense urban areas has led to what might be called collective and inclusive poverty. Dirt roads, polluted rivers, garbage dumping in public places, and traffic congestion with air and noise pollution affect the entire population. However, poverty in the poorer locations is alarming; and the poor are most affected due to environmental deterioration. As conventional ways have proved to be not effective in meeting the infrastructure needs of growing regions and cities, traditional ways such as water supply through wells, water spouts etc., agricultural use of solid wastes or energy from traditional sources, can co-exist and fill in the gaps. The blending of the two should be based on combined sustainability. It is not necessarily good for a society in transition to modern ways of living, although it may be inevitable.

Savings on transport costs are certainly one positive result of location. Mixed land use helps to impact the poor’s access to affordable, higher density shelter options that would result. It is more efficient to provide services in a dense and compact area. This used to be the beauty in the design of the medieval towns. Urban sprawl has not only destroyed valuable agricultural land but it has also made the provision of services costly and inadequate. The price of public transport is not affordable to many resulting in poor people walking long hours for work and for getting access to essential services.

Every region of the nation is urbanizing in its own way. In the process, opportunities are created but they are not shared equally. Research should be undertaken to relate service delivery with affordable standards and access as well as pricing policies. It should be directed towards increasing competitiveness in the supply of infrastructure and services and ensuring equitable pricing and fiscal policies. It should deal with issues of cost sharing through a rigorous study of innovative approaches like land pooling. For an analysis of fiscal sustainability, how investments are planned and made need to be studied. Ways of monitoring the costs of urbanization should be devised in order to recover costs. Various tools of impact analysis with a focus on the role of participatory planning should be used to increase affordability and reduce exclusion. It should devise tools to identify feasible projects and ways of financing them.

One consequence of economic development can be efficiency. Productivity can increase at the expense of labor so fast that there is less labor required; and the rich with little effort can manage lots of assets and the production system. As a result, the number of poor has increased and wages have declined. This has eroded inclusiveness.

4.              Fiscal Sustainability of Municipalities and Institutions

There is an acute shortage of infrastructure and municipalities are not in a position to finance even basic infrastructure and service projects. The local resource base is still weak; although attempts were made to improve fiscal sustainability of the municipalities, they are seldom related to enhance their economic performance. Fiscal sustainability can be achieved only through reconciling the productive capacity of cities with planned urbanization. The long-term source of urban financing depends on the ability of local government to capture the wealth created through urbanization. It will not be easy for Nepalese cities to attain fiscal sustainability without inclusive service delivery because the overall affordability to pay is not adequate and there is a general lack of willingness to pay more for better services. A large number of the urban poor are engaged in the provision of services which makes cities more affordable to the more fortunate ones. Had there been no informal sector, prices of essential goods would become less affordable.

Due to poor management, there is a problem of local government fiscal sustainability. Cost recovery of most investments in infrastructure is rather poor. Under the patronage of government, cities try to maximize revenue collection within their allowable yet limited sources.

Revenue collection is not tied up with development initiatives. They seem to have apparently reached a saturation point within the given institutional environment. The meager amount collected is also shared with different tiers of government. As a result, due to serious flaws in the provision of services, productivity is not increasing. This anomaly has resulted in irregularities. The grants from the government come to the municipality in a bureaucratic way. In this context, the only way available to access basic services is to form partnership between stakeholders in urbanizing appropriate areas and share the benefits in a business-like manner. This will help enhance the fiscal sustainability of municipalities. They should be empowered to form partnerships not only with economic sectors but also with other spatial units forming collaborative efforts to launch projects that urbanize areas in a planned way generating more resources. It is wrong to presume that further urbanization in the complex urban areas will generate more resources to the desirable extent that will enhance fiscal sustainability. The overall competitiveness of the nation is at stake. The local resource base needs to be widened and deepened to ensure fiscal sustainability. Instead of creating opportunities for sustainable development and financing, tax is collected wherever possible without bothering about the future earnings. The policy is not based on sustainable earnings and the ability to pay tax.

Fiscal sustainability can be enhanced though inclusive urban development that broadens the basic service fee base of low-income users. Cities survive because of the services of the weaker section. The cost of servicing the city increases with exclusion. If people engage themselves in the provision of services as part of a service delivery system, these services will remain within the affordable reach of the people at large. 

5.              Conclusion

The analysis of urbanization in Nepal has shown that most parts of the country are rural with a very low level of urbanization. Only 11 municipalities out of 58 had a population of more than 40,000 and a density greater than 20 persons per ha according to the census of 2011. About one fifth of the national area has four fifths of the urban population. A large percentage of municipal land is under agricultural use. This has led to the premature conversion of farmland into urban uses. The competitiveness of agro-based activities has been affected. Provision of infrastructure has been less cost-effective.

Urbanization in different parts of Nepal differs widely. It is not easy to urbanize the vast rural areas, through a balanced development with sustainable use of environmental resources, in the near future due to political uncertainties resulting in the lack of viable urban development policies. These will have to be developed as rural regions for the time being. Out of the 15 planning regions, the most urbanized ones are Central Hill, Eastern and Central Terai and Western Hill. This has been influenced by changing resource conditions, access to infrastructure, and frequent changes in policy through the long transition phase to democracy and the difficult relationship with India. Urbanization in Nepal will largely depend on policy, investment and market forces with the trend of further concentration in these regions. Small city regions could be developed but sufficient investments are not foreseeable for corridor development.

Urban areas of Nepal have distinct comparative advantages in cultural tourism, services, crafts, and agro-processing, but they have not been able to turn them into competitive advantages. Lack of effective planning, limited city marketing techniques, and inadequate infrastructure are major constraints for urban growth and competitiveness.

Nepal needs to foster the sustainable growth of its urban regions, promote the development of urban regions, promote urbanizing rural regions and enhance the competitiveness of strategic urban clusters in lead activities including tourism, agro-processing and handicraft – to unleash urban-based growth and shape the spatial transformation in a sustainable way. There is overemphasis on linking regions having no economic connections with a number of so-called urban economic centers. Their influences on the surrounding areas where linkage opportunities exist are undermined.

For regions not integrated into the urban network, inputs for industries of city regions are drawn from them and their markets for their products are also their regions. Urbanization of rural regions should be facilitated not through the creation of bigger centers but through the promotion of small linkage centers. Such regions may not be able to retain either their economic base or their population as competitiveness is a relative term and all the regions cannot be equally competitive. The comparative advantage of each could provide direction to investment and inclusiveness.

Cities can form a national urban system based on an integrated economy. Such a system can unlock not yet integrated resources through the formation of market linkages with isolated economies. Cities are encouraged to expand their regions and form collaborative and thicker corridors that integrate more space into an integrated economy. Expansion of city regions and widening of corridors joining city regions will help to enhance the competitiveness of cities. This will enhance inclusiveness as most of the population can be integrated with economic development. Collaborative efforts among cities in proximity are the key to competiveness. It is sustained through the formation of clusters shown by the growth of Kathmandu region. Border towns have stagnated as clusters could not be formed and investment was denied.

To conclude, Nepal should adopt a two-pronged strategy. The first is managing the cluster economy of Kathmandu Valley through appropriate deconcentration in the light of increasing exclusion. The second strategy is inclusive city cluster or corridor development, especially, the inclusive development of the Biratnagar corridor based on trans-boundary collaboration.

References:

Joshi, Jibgar. 1985. Regional Strategy for Development: A Case Study of Nepal. Kathmandu: T. U. Press.

_______. 1997. Planning for Sustainable Development: Urban management in Nepal and South Asia. Kathmandu: Lajmina Joshi.

Rodwin, Lloyd. 1981. Cities and City Planning. New York: Plenum Press.

The new book Urban Planning in Nepal –Approaching Sustainability-authored by Dr. Jibgar Joshi, a renowned personality in the field of sustainable development and urban planning, could directly facilitate Nepali decision makers as they work out ways to develop various settlements in the country as per the spirit of federalism and modern engineering. The book, in offering a important insight into the way urban planning should be undertaken in the context of Nepal, serves actually as a tool to direct future development process. Nepal is gradually moving towards urbanization and there is no other option. Proper and timely planning is required to make cities sustainable. That is why Dr. Joshi’s book is relevant for all in academia, professions and even futurists. The author rightly mentions in the Preface to the book:  “Once considered as an extension of building as a part of civil engineering, urbanization now covers almost all the disciplines.” Dr. Joshi offers enough nutrition for many in his text, analysis and description by way of building on various 11 dimensions of urban planning. The author is very much optimistic about Nepal’s progress towards a sustainable urbanization. Dwelling on the conflict currently being felt in growing demand for and inadequate supply of services, Dr.  Joshi expresses confidence in engineers and planners particularly their skill, design, innovativeness, ICT-focused approach to respond to the conflict. Dr. Joshi advocates for province-specific and region-specific cities in Nepal. He considers the approach to be more pragmatic and to the tune of Nepal. In reference to ICT, Dr. Joshi mentions : ” ICT is used to make efficient use of infrastructure such as roads and built environment with the help of artificial intelligence and data analytics. It helps cities to learn, adapt, and innovate. It implies e-participation of all in the governance of the city. The intelligence of the stakeholders improves due to e-governance. Their improved intelligence makes them able to respond better to changing circumstances. ” The author has rightly emphasized in the book the need to transform urban planning for more effectiveness and relevance. He has offered a recipe for the same in a very interesting manner. The book could be used as text book and also a reference book. Moreover, it is a must for all those who are interested in understanding the core issues of urbanization. Dr. Joshi’s observation in the book is really appealing:  “the primary goal of planning is to enhance the public good.” Will those who are shaping planning at present for short-run political needs and manipulated popularity care to read the book? The book underlines the need for building province–specific and region–specific cities in Nepal and provides guidance to provincial leadership for this, points out senior journalist RK Regmee in his foreword on the book. Besides providing readers with updated way of looking at city development and planning, the book will facilitate the decision makers, planners and builders to refresh their thinking and construction practices about the city and developments, he rightly concludes in the foreword. Read more at: https://english.corporatenepal.com/jibgar-joshis-new-book-integrated-approach-to-urban-planning/ | Corporate Nepal – undefined

It has become clear that urbanization is inevitable. With this, our planning approach has become mostly urban. There is a growing significance of urban development in Nepal.  The field of urban planning extended with the growing issues and challenges of urbanization. Human activities take place mostly in urban areas; and affect the environment.  Urban planning is concerned with the organization of such activities over the urban space for sustainability. It has generated tools related to making national and regional development sustainable.  The lack of a comprehensive approach has created confusions in the application of urban planning in Nepal. There is a need to avoid them in order to sustain its distinct identity; it needs to be well defined.  This book is an attempt to present different approaches of urban planning and related experiences in Nepal into a single volume in a comprehensive way.  It reflects the evolution of urban planning in Nepal. It contains what needs to be done for transforming urban planning to make it effective and relevant in facing the emerging challenges of sustainable urbanization and urban development in Nepal. The book deals with the core elements of urban planning; and shows how it should be made strategic in order to fulfill the long-term goals of master planning while underscoring the importance of integrated action planning.  It shows different approaches for the sustainable use of the urban land and highlights the significance of common public spaces. It presents infrastructure and services as integral parts of urban development for raising the quality of life in urban areas by meeting the needs of the people. It tries to link them with sustainability. The book is expected to raise awareness on the relevance of urban planning in approaching sustainability. It works on strategies for making cities inclusive and sustainable; resilient and safe; and smart. Foreword   Through this book, Dr. Jibgar Joshi, a renowned scholar and professional with rich experience, offers among other things, a language and tools for talking cities and understanding the process of planning, forming and developing cities in the present context. I have known Jibgar for more than four decades. He has over the years kept himself engaged in active academic and professional exercise. The book provides readers with a framework, which could be instrumental in getting the insight of all the parameters essential for building cities. Careful perusal of the book could convince readers that the narrative mentioned in the book, if translated professionally into actual practice, could result in the emergence of a city with capacity to remain inclusive, safe, and resilient.  Nepalese have witnessed the ongoing unplanned growth of cities in the country and are struggling for getting basic services. Having read the book, I believe the readers would come across a valuable message for avoiding flaws and biases in urban development strategy. The book might reassure its readers about viability of cities which are livable and manageable in their own life time and in their own vicinity. Dr. Joshi’s strategy gets mapped impressively as he discusses in practical tone, integrated action planning and strategic planning. The writer takes special care in blending the concepts and practices of integrated planning, investment planning, and strategic planning in the context of realizing the vision of master plan for urban areas.  In a display of pragmatism, he lays emphasis on flexibility in allowing the implementation-dynamics of the process and actors attached to the key elements – planning, integration, and investment – to take their due course prudently. The book is responsive to climate change issues and advocates the use of clean energy. The latest move for saving environment for future expressed in vocabulary of various sorts such as green revolution, respect to natural resources in the heat of development drive, saving mother earth, back to nature, safe earth, and development not at the cost of environment, also features in the book in a prominent way. He refers to the years of dedicated contribution that communities made in creating common public spaces and pinpoints the current pressure on them because of the growing needs of present day economic growth. He voices for their continued accessibility to all people irrespective of their income level. The doctrine he advocates is a complex of concepts and practices. It includes, among others, respect for common spaces and appreciation of their relevance, open heart for integrating them with development, and innovations to use the for sustainability. After a comprehensive tour of urban planning through different perspectives which adorn the book, the readers may have a better feeling of the mess in cities, confusion in role of actors, haze in vision, and drifting policies reflected in the latest state of city-building in the country. Dwelling on the conflict currently being felt in growing demand for and inadequate supply of services, he finds an appropriate role for engineers and planners and also a challenge for them: building infrastructure with apt design and with proper use of land focusing on sustainability and ICT. Arguing that “it is possible to transform rural areas into sustainable and vibrant urban centers”, the author mentions:  “people should be made aware of their needs and the possibilities of meeting them in the best possible way.” The book underlines the need for building province-specific and region-specific cities in Nepal and provides guidance to provincial leadership for this. Take-away from the book in this regard is clear: a working urban system could strengthen provincial economies which would then enable the country to realize prosperity at the national level. The book is interesting to read; and facilitates understanding of issues related to core dimensions of urban planning and its parameters and linkages. Dr. Joshi has taken special care to avoid planners’ and engineers’ jargon and scholarly show-off for focusing on communicating his message to common Nepalese who take interest in development matters particularly in the way cities are built or managed. The positive and constructive tone that readers find in various pages of the book should be appreciated for it helps to move on remedying errors of the past. A rich bibliography and appropriate attributions wherever needed exhibit the writer’s keen sense of research and professional authenticity.  It is because of these qualities that the book could be termed “a must read book” for those interested in development and cities. I commend it. It will, besides providing readers with updated way of looking at city development and planning, facilitate the decision makers, planners and builders to refresh their thinking and construction practices about city and development matters.   Prof. Rama Krishna Regmee, Senior Journalist Kantipur City College Putalisadak, Kathmandu.   Preface   Nepal has a great deal of experiences in urban planning and development with lots of success stories. With its engagement in many types of planning works, there has been an immense growth in planning knowledge. Many innovative planning tools have been invented and applied. At the same time, its scope has expanded with new challenges of unprecedented nature. However, the success could not be extended to create impacts in terms of sustainable improvement in the quality of life through the provision of urban services.  The field of urban planning is expanding fast; and its growing influence at regional and federal level is clearly visible with the growth of urban economy. Once considered as an extension of building as a part of civil engineering, it now covers almost all the disciplines. Earlier, urban development used to be seen as a sector with little contribution to national economy. The focus used to be on rural and national development; and investments in cities were not a priority. Today urban sector has become the major contributor to national development.  Most of the investments are being centered on urban areas. Slowly we realized that whatever our policies and intents might have been, our actions and preferences centered on cities. We are now aware that it is not the policy intents that make a difference. What makes difference are our actions and investments. Cities now play a key role in the transformation of the national economy. We now realize that national production suffered greatly as we did not provide appropriate sites for our projects and activities in cities. Increasing investments in cities are the drivers of development and most activities related to national, provincial or local development take place in urban areas. However development in urban areas are taking place in an unplanned way. Urban planning has become less effective. It has not been able to face the new challenges brought about by rapid urbanization. There is an increasing problem of coordination and integration. As a result cities are facing challenges of sustainable development such as increasing exclusion and climate change. Being associated with planning exercises for more than four decades, I had the privilege of witnessing the evolution of urban planning in Nepal. Over the years, I have been using various tools and methods of urban planning during the course of research, teaching, and preparation of plans and policies and their implementation.  Urban planning, instead of being developed as a tool for sustainable development, is being shaped through short-run political needs at federal, provincial, and local level. It is being manipulated to ignore equity and environment for the sake of immediate return. The primary goal of planning is to enhance the public good. The changes in the scope of urban planning have placed much more responsibility on urban planners. However, they are being engaged more on isolated activities not necessarily linked with the public good. Sustainability can and should be approached by making cities as well as urbanization more sustainable. It is achieved through the sustainable use of resources for meeting the human needs and sustaining the ability to meet their future needs. It largely relies on the management of urban services in a sustainable way. Poorly managed cities consume natural resources, most of which are not renewable. The book tries to reflect the evolution of urban planning in Nepal for a long time. It tries to present different approaches of urban planning and related experiences in Nepal in a comprehensive way. It is written with the purpose of making urban planning more relevant and effective in the context of sustainable development. It is expected to raise awareness on the relevance of urban planning in the context of approaching sustainability. I will consider my efforts worthwhile if it can influence the development of urban planning to this direction. Although the book is intended for all who have some interest in the prosperity of Nepal, it will, in particular, be relevant and useful for planners and planning students as well as for municipal officials. I am grateful to Prof. Rama Krishna Regmee for his foreword. My thanks are due to Mr. Madan Bista, MS Offset Press.  I owe a great deal to my family; my wife Lajmina provided me continuous support and my daughter Dr. Dipika Joshi helped me with her valuable suggestions in making this publication possible.                                                                                      May 2019                                                                            Jibgar Joshi      464 Tahachal Marg, Kathmandu             Contents I.          Introduction                                                                        1 – 12 1.1       Purpose and Scope        1 1.2       Overview          3 1.3       Basic Concepts of Planning                  5 II.        Review of Planning at Different Levels                    13 – 40 2.1        Development Plans       14 2.2        Sectoral Plans               25 2.3        Regional Planning        28 2.4         City Cluster Economic Development     34 2.5         District Plans                38 2.6         Rural Development Planning    39 III.       Cities and Urban Planning                                            41 – 61 3.1         Urbanization               41 3.2   Historical Perspective               43 3.3   Purpose of Urban Planning       47 3.4         Making Cities Inclusive and Sustainable              50 3.5       Making Cities Safe and Resilient                       58 3.6       Making Cities Smart                 60 IV.       Land Use Planning                                                      62 – 84 4.1       Introduction                 62 4.2       Land Policy and Administration                        63 4.3       Land Use Pattern                      65 4.4       Land UsePlanning       69 4.5       Land Use Strategy        73 4.6       Making LUP Risk Sensitive       76 4.7       Rebuilding after Nepal Earthquake 2015                        81 V.        Physical Planning and Master Plans                             85 – 89 5.1       Physical Planning         85 5.2       Master Plans                 86 5.3       Structure Plans and Indicative Plans      88 VI.       Integrated Action Planning and Strategic Planning 90 -110 6.1       Introduction 90 6.2       Integrated Action Planning (IAP)                      91 6.3       Investment Planning and Periodic Plans 103 6.4       Strategic Planning                    107 VII.      Urban Land Development                                           111 – 125 7.1       Introduction     111 7.2       Slum Improvement and Urban Upgrading                      113 7.3       Site and services’ Projects and GLD                  116 7.4       Land Pooling Projects               118 VIII.    Infrastructure                                                              126 – 154 8.1       Background                  126 8.2       Existing Situation of Urban Services     129 8.3       Infrastructure Planning             131 8.4       Engineering                  138 8.5       Transport Management             141 8.6       Information and Communication Technology    149 8.7       Energy             152 IX.      Environmental Services and Planning 155 – 171 9.1       Basic Concepts and Overview    155 9.2       Problems of Urban Environment                       156 9.3       Health and Environment           159 9.4       Water and Sanitation    160 9.5       Solid Waste Management                      163                   9.6       Air and Noise Pollution             165 9.7       Environmental Assessment       168 X. Greenery and Common Public Spaces                 172 -180 10.1      Introduction                 172 10.2      Open Space and Greenery                     173 10.3      Significance of Heritage Sites and Public Places 174 10.4      Problems and Challenges                      176 10.5      Developing Open Spaces for Sustainability        177  XI        Conclusion                                                                  181 – 189   Bibliography                                                                            190 – 202

(Source:Sahari Bikas Vol. 11, No. 19. pp. 32-33, 2011)
Introduction
This short paper deals with how cities in Nepal should respond to the emerging climate change issues. Within a short period, urban policy has undergone many changes in the process of being aligned to the changing needs and priorities of national development. Starting with a peripheral position in the national policy debate just a few decade ago, it has turned out to be a matter of critical concern for any sector in Nepal. The contribution of cities to national economy has greatly increased over the last few decades. The way our cities develop will have impacts on the economy as well as the environment. For any activity, they provide not only the site but also input in the form of urban goods and services. Nepal, being a very poor country, must strive for high national income. The challenge facing our cities is how to help realize this goal while following sustainable pathways. It is heartening to note that awareness on the threats of climate change is growing at a rapid pace. Cities are the centres of high consumption and the primary source of green house gases (GHG). It has become necessary to find strategies that will allow our cities develop with potential for mitigation, which will help reduce the cost of adaptation in the future.
Climate Change
Climate change and global warming due to GHG emission is a matter of growing concern for all. Nepal is no exception to it. Although, Nepal’s contribution to the total GHG contribution of the world is very low, she is highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. The problem is further aggravated due to widespread poverty, landslides, and dependence on rain-fed agriculture.
The terms “adaptation” and “mitigation” are the key to responding to climate change issues. They should be made to complement each other in an overall strategy to reduce GHG emission. The International Panel of Climate Change has defined mitigation as “an anthropogenic intervention to reduce the sources or enhance the sinks of GHGs”. The goal of adaptation is to enhance the ability of the city to face the threats of climate change. It should adjust to climate change including variability and extremes to curb potential damage; to take advantage of opportunities; or to cope with the consequences. The adaptive capacity of a city increases as it builds resilience to deal with the negative impact and use benefits that may occur from climate change.
Issues and Challenges
Cities struggling to adapt to climate change may not be able to mitigate it. This will make them more unsustainable. A city to be sustainable should be able to adapt to climate change without undermining mitigation.
There is huge technological and economic potentials for reducing GHG emissions. However, changes in lifestyles and some social and behavioural trend have led to an increasing use of energy. Although developed countries are more responsible for the climate change, our cities are also following their path of development. The outside forces emanating from the operation of the global economy generally lead our cities to imitate “high standard” lifestyles that may not match with our needs. They resort to technologies, which even when they are environment-freindly are too costly and complex in adapting to match with the needs and culture of our cities. In our case, dwelling units and vehicles are growing in size. Use of electrical equipments is increasing, There is alack of public awareness on environment-friendly approaches.
No matter how sustainably we design and develop our city, it will be exposed to several risks and threats. With the provision of more environmental goods and services, it will have comparative advantage for the placing of new investments. With the prosperity of the city, it will attract more migrants. There will be an increasing need to absorb and integrate the migrants with it. It will not be easy to cope with such changes.
Strategies for Climate Change Responsive Cities
Different ways of housing more people in a city are urban upgrading, town extension, and new developments. Their suitability will depend largely on their ability to mitigate GHG emission and adapt to climate change, Whether they will make the entire city more sustainable will depend also on how they interact with each other. Land development projects in different cities of Nepal use have helped to improve the urban environment. Land use planning should be used as an effective tool for controlling the growth of urban areas while ensuring sustainable urban mobility with a view to minimize GHG emissions. It should help to build adaptive capacity and aim to create a healthy and a pleasant environment.
Adaptation is more relevant while dealing with vulnerable poor communities. It is necessary to support them. It is not easy to make such communities resilient enough to cope with climate-related disasters; and they are susceptible to outside influence. Ability of a small community to adapt to natural changes is affected by actions made outside its boundary. It is necessary to mobilize and empower vulnerable communities to develop more affordable and convenient ways of adapting to the consequences of the climate change and variability.
Climate change response should be specific to local conditions. Local experiences are built on the lessons going back for generations. It becomes necessary for cities to organize programs on environmental education. People should made aware of climate change; and solutions should be sought within the scope of the ongoing processes of development at the action level. Here, the people ad communities are taking decisions that have far reaching consequences on environment. The solution to most of the environmental problems lies on their initiatives and drive to use resources wisely. We have to rely on the people as the true custodian of our city for the upkeep of its identity and environment. We should integrate the new migrants flooding to our cities; and safeguard our identity and interest against outside influence.
Conclusion
Urban form plays a vital role in helping cities respond to climate change. If cities are not well managed, there will be congestion and overcrowding. The consumption of energy can be very high due to traffic congestion; and cities will be less sustainable. Deliberate urbanization of potential areas with sustainable provision of housing and jobs for the increasing population should be encouraged. In making cities responsive to climate change, the role of its residents is critical. Their collective ownership of the city and their understanding of the threats of climate change will make the city resist outside forces that try to impair the local resilience. They should be enabled to protect the natural capital they create from being exploited. External support for adaptation should be linked with the city’s potential to create carbon sinks and curb GHG emissions. The proper use of adaptation fund will allow for claiming more funds in the future. In other words, what we receive for being more sustainable should be spent in a sustainable way to justify more funding in the future.